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تسجيل مستخدم جديدDistribution and Energy Balance of Plutos Nitrogen Ice, as seen by New Horizons in 2015
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Plutos surface is geologically complex because of volatile ices that are mobile on seasonal and longer time scales. Here we analyzed New Horizons LEISA spectral data to globally map the nitrogen ice, including nitrogen with methane diluted in it. Our goal was to learn about the seasonal processes influencing ice redistribution, to calculate the globally averaged energy balance, and to place a lower limit on Plutos N2 inventory. We present the average latitudinal distribution of nitrogen and investigate the relationship between its distribution and topography on Pluto by using maps that include the shifted bands of methane in solid solution with nitrogen to more completely map the distribution of the nitrogen ice. We find that the global average bolometric albedo is 0.83 +- 0.11, similar to that inferred for Triton, and that a significant fraction of Plutos N2 is stored in Sputnik Planitia. Under the assumption that Plutos nitrogen-dominated 11.5 microbar atmosphere is in vapor pressure equilibrium with the nitrogen ice, the ice temperature is 36.93 +/- 0.10 K, as measured by New Horizons. Combined with our global energy balance calculation, this implies that the average bolometric emissivity of Plutos nitrogen ice is probably in the range 0.47 - 0.72. This is consistent with the low emissivities estimated for Triton based on Voyager, and may have implications for Plutos atmospheric seasonal variations, as discussed below. The global pattern of volatile transport at the time of the encounter was from north to south, and the transition between condensation and sublimation within Sputnik Planitia is correlated with changes in the grain size and CH4 concentration derived from the spectral maps. The low emissivity of Plutos N2 ice suggests that Plutos atmosphere may undergo an extended period of constant pressure even as Pluto recedes from the Sun in its orbit.
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The vast, deep, volatile-ice-filled basin informally named Sputnik Planum is central to Plutos geological activity[1,2]. Composed of molecular nitrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide ices[3], but dominated by N2-ice, this ice layer is organized into c
ells or polygons, typically ~10-40 km across, that resemble the surface manifestation of solid state convection[1,2]. Here we report, based on available rheological measurements[4], that solid layers of N2 ice approximately greater than 1 km thick should convect for estimated present-day heat flow conditions on Pluto. More importantly, we show numerically that convective overturn in a several-km-thick layer of solid nitrogen can explain the great lateral width of the cells. The temperature dependence of N2-ice viscosity implies that the SP ice layer convects in the so-called sluggish lid regime[5], a unique convective mode heretofore not definitively observed in the Solar System. Average surface horizontal velocities of a few cm/yr imply surface transport or renewal times of ~500,000 years, well under the 10 Myr upper limit crater retention age for Sputnik Planum[2]. Similar convective surface renewal may also occur on other dwarf planets in the Kuiper belt, which may help explain the high albedos of some of them.
We present results from a multi-chord Pluto stellar occultation observed on 29 June 2015 from New Zealand and Australia. This occurred only two weeks before the NASA New Horizons flyby of the Pluto system and serves as a useful comparison between gro
und-based and space results. We find that Plutos atmosphere is still expanding, with a significant pressure increase of 5$pm$2% since 2013 and a factor of almost three since 1988. This trend rules out, as of today, an atmospheric collapse associated with Plutos recession from the Sun. A central flash, a rare occurrence, was observed from several sites in New Zealand. The flash shape and amplitude are compatible with a spherical and transparent atmospheric layer of roughly 3~km in thickness whose base lies at about 4~km above Plutos surface, and where an average thermal gradient of about 5 K~km$^{-1}$ prevails. We discuss the possibility that small departures between the observed and modeled flash are caused by local topographic features (mountains) along Plutos limb that block the stellar light. Finally, using two possible temperature profiles, and extrapolating our pressure profile from our deepest accessible level down to the surface, we obtain a possible range of 11.9-13.7~$mu$bar for the surface pressure.
The New Horizons flyby of Pluto confirmed the existence of hazes in its atmosphere. Observations of a large high- to low- phase brightness ratio, combined with the blue color of the haze, suggest that the haze particles are fractal aggregates, analog
ous to the photochemical hazes on Titan. Therefore, studying the Pluto hazes can shed light on the similarities and differences between the Pluto and Titan atmospheres. We model the haze distribution using the Community Aerosol and Radiation Model for Atmospheres assuming that the distribution is shaped by sedimentation and coagulation of particles originating from photochemistry. Hazes composed of both purely spherical and purely fractal aggregate particles are considered. Agreement between model results and occultation observations is obtained with aggregate particles when the downward flux of photochemical products is equal to the column-integrated methane destruction rate ~1.2 $times$ 10$^{-14}$ g cm$^{-2}$ s$^{-1}$, while for spherical particles the mass flux must be 2-3 times greater. This flux is nearly identical to the haze production flux of Titan previously obtained by comparing microphysical model results to Cassini observations. The aggregate particle radius is sensitive to particle charging, and a particle charge to radius ratio of 30 e-/{mu}m is necessary to produce ~0.1-0.2 {mu}m aggregates near Plutos surface, in accordance with forward scattering measurements. Such a particle charge to radius ratio is 2-4 times higher than those previously obtained for Titan. Hazes composed of spheres with the same particle charge to radius ratio have particles that are 4 times smaller. These results further suggest that the haze particles are fractal aggregates. We also consider the effect of condensation of HCN, and C$_{2}$-hydrocarbons on the haze particles, which may play an important role in shaping their distributions.
On July 14th 2015, NASAs New Horizons mission gave us an unprecedented detailed view of the Pluto system. The complex compositional diversity of Plutos encounter hemisphere was revealed by the Ralph/LEISA infrared spectrometer on board of New Horizon
s. We present compositional maps of Pluto defining the spatial distribution of the abundance and textural properties of the volatiles methane and nitrogen ices and non-volatiles water ice and tholin. These results are obtained by applying a pixel-by-pixel Hapke radiative transfer model to the LEISA scans. Our analysis focuses mainly on the large scale latitudinal variations of methane and nitrogen ices and aims at setting observational constraints to volatile transport models. Specifically, we find three latitudinal bands: the first, enriched in methane, extends from the pole to 55deg N, the second dominated by nitrogen, continues south to 35deg N, and the third, composed again mainly of methane, reaches 20deg N. We demonstrate that the distribution of volatiles across these surface units can be explained by differences in insolation over the past few decades. The latitudinal pattern is broken by Sputnik Planitia, a large reservoir of volatiles, with nitrogen playing the most important role. The physical properties of methane and nitrogen in this region are suggestive of the presence of a cold trap or possible volatile stratification. Furthermore our modeling results point to a possible sublimation transport of nitrogen from the northwest edge of Sputnik Planitia toward the south.
Observations made during the New Horizons flyby provide a detailed snapshot of the current state of Plutos atmosphere. While the lower atmosphere (at altitudes <200 km) is consistent with ground-based stellar occultations, the upper atmosphere is muc
h colder and more compact than indicated by pre-encounter models. Molecular nitrogen (N$_2$) dominates the atmosphere (at altitudes <1800 km or so), while methane (CH$_4$), acetylene (C$_2$H$_2$), ethylene (C$_2$H$_4$), and ethane (C$_2$H$_6$) are abundant minor species, and likely feed the production of an extensive haze which encompasses Pluto. The cold upper atmosphere shuts off the anticipated enhanced-Jeans, hydrodynamic-like escape of Plutos atmosphere to space. It is unclear whether the current state of Plutos atmosphere is representative of its average state--over seasonal or geologic time scales.
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