Average $2$-Torsion in Class Groups of Rings Associated to Binary $n$-ic Forms

Let $n geq 3$ be an integer. In this paper, we study the average behavior of the $2$-torsion in class groups of rings cut out by integral binary $n$-ic forms having any fixed odd leading coefficient. Specifically, we compute upper bounds on the average size of the $2$-torsion in class groups of rings and fields arising from such binary forms. Conditional on a uniformity estimate, we further prove that each of these upper bounds is in fact an equality. Our theorems extend recent work of Bhargava-Hanke-Shankar in the cubic case and of Siad in the monic case to binary forms of any degree with any fixed odd leading coefficient. When $n$ is odd, we find that fixing the leading coefficient increases the average $2$-torsion in the class group, relative to the prediction of Cohen-Lenstra-Martinet-Malle. When $n$ is even, such predictions are yet to be formulated; together with Siads results in the monic case, our theorems are the first of their kind to describe the average behavior of the $p$-torsion in class groups of degree-$n$ rings where $p mid n > 2$. To prove these theorems, we first answer a question of Ellenberg by parametrizing square roots of the class of the inverse different of a ring cut out by a binary form in terms of the integral orbits of a certain coregular representation. This parametrization has a range of interesting applications, from studying $2$-parts of class groups to studying $2$-Selmer groups of hyperelliptic Jacobians.