Ram pressure stripping of the hot gaseous haloes of galaxies using the k-epsilon sub-grid turbulence model

We perform three dimensional hydrodynamic simulations of the ram pressure stripping of the hot extended gaseous halo of a massive galaxy using the k-epsilon sub-grid turbulence model at Mach numbers 0.9, 1.1 and 1.9. The k-epsilon model is used to simulate high Reynolds number flows by increasing the transport coefficients in regions of high turbulence. We find that the initial, instantaneous stripping is the same whether or not the k-epsilon model is implemented and is in agreement with the results of other studies. However the use of the k-epsilon model leads to five times less gas remaining after stripping by a supersonic flow has proceeded for 10 Gyr, which is more consistent with what simple analytic calculations indicate. Hence the continual Kelvin-Helmholtz stripping plays a significant role in the ram pressure stripping of the haloes of massive galaxies. To properly account for this, simulations of galaxy clusters will require the use of sub-grid turbulence models

Cosmic Rays and Radiative Instabilities

In the absence of magnetic fields and cosmic rays, radiative cooling laws with a range of dependences on temperature affect the stability of interstellar gas. For about four and a half decades, astrophysicists have recognised the importance of the thermal instablity for the formation of clouds in the interstellar medium. Even in the past several years, many papers have concerned the role of the thermal instability in the production of molecular clouds. About three and a half decades ago, astrophysicists investigating radiative shocks noticed that for many cooling laws such shocks are unstable. Attempts to address the effects of cosmic rays on the stablity of radiative media that are initially uniform or that have just passed through shocks have been made. The simplest approach to such studies involves the assumption that the cosmic rays behave as a fluid. Work based on such an approach is described. Cosmic rays have no effect on the stability of initially uniform, static media with respect to isobaric perturbations, though they do affect the stability of such media with respect to isentropic perturbations. The effect of cosmic rays on the stability of radiative shocked media depends greatly on the efficiency of the conversion of energy in accelerated cosmic rays into thermal energy in the thermalized fluid. If that efficiency is low, radiative cooling makes weak shocks propagating into upstream media with low cosmic-ray pressures more likely to be cosmic-ray dominated than adiabatic shocks of comparable strength. The cosmic-ray dominated shocks do not display radiative overstability. Highly efficient conversion of cosmic-ray energy into thermal energy leads shocked media to behave as they do when cosmic rays are absent.

Chemistry in Cosmic-Ray Dominated Regions (CRDRs)

Molecular line observations may serve as diagnostics of the degree to which the number density of cosmic ray protons, having energies of 10s to 100s of MeVs each, is enhanced in starburst galaxies and galaxies with active nuclei. Results, obtained with the UCL_PDR code, for the fractional abundances of molecules as functions of the cosmic-ray induced ionisation rate, $zeta$, are presented. The aim is not to model any particular external galaxies. Rather, it is to identify characteristics of the dependencies of molecular abundances on $zeta$, in part to enable the development of suitable observational programmes for cosmic ray dominated regions (CRDRs) which will then stimulate detailed modelling. For a number density of hydrogen nuclei of of $10^4$ cm$^{-3}$, and high visual extinction, the fractional abundances of some species increase as $zeta$ increases to $10^{-14}$ s$^{-1}$, but for much higher values of $zeta$ the fractional abundances of all molecular species are significantly below their peak values. We show in particular that OH, H$_{2}$O, H$_{3}^{+}$, H$_{3}$O$^{+}$ and OH$^{+}$ attain large fractional abundances ($geqslant 10^{-8}$) for $zeta$ as large as $10^{-12}$ s$^{-1}$. HCO$^{+}$ is a poor tracer of CRDRs when $zeta > 10^{-13}$ s$^{-1}$. Sulphur-bearing species may be useful tracers of CRDRs gas in which $zeta sim 10^{-16}$ s$^{-1}$. Ammonia has a large fractional abundance for $zeta leqslant 10^{-16}$ s$^{-1}$ and nitrogen appears in CN-bearing species at significant levels as $zeta$ increases, even up to $sim 10^{-14}$ s$^{-1}$. In this paper, we also discuss our model predictions, comparing them to recent detections in both galactic and extragalactic sources. We show that they agree well, to a first approximation, with the observational constraints.

Molecular Tracers of Filamentary CO Emission Regions Surrounding the Central Galaxies of Clusters

Optical emission is detected from filaments around the central galaxies of clusters of galaxies. These filaments have lengths of tens of kiloparsecs. The emission is possibly due to heating caused by the dissipation of mechanical energy and by cosmic ray induced ionisation. CO millimeter and submillimeter line emissions as well as H$_{2}$ infrared emission originating in such filaments surrounding NGC~1275, the central galaxy of the Perseus cluster, have been detected. Our aim is to identify those molecular species, other than CO, that may emit detectable millimeter and submillimeter line features arising in these filaments, and to determine which of those species will produce emissions that might serve as diagnostics of the dissipation and cosmic ray induced ionisation. The time-dependent UCL photon-dominated region modelling code was used in the construction of steady-state models of molecular filamentary emission regions at appropriate pressures, for a range of dissipation and cosmic ray induced ionisation rates and incident radiation fields.HCO$^+$ and C$_2$H emissions will potentially provide information about the cosmic ray induced ionisation rates in the filaments. HCN and, in particular, CN are species with millimeter and submillimeter lines that remain abundant in the warmest regions containing molecules. Detections of the galaxy cluster filaments in HCO$^{+}$, C$_{2}$H, and CN emissions and further detections of them in HCN emissions would provide significant constraints on the dissipation and cosmic ray induced ionisation rates.

How Interstellar Chemistry (and Astrochemistry More Generally) Became Useful

In 1986 Alex Dalgarno published a paper entitled Is Interstellar Chemistry Useful? By the middle 1970s, and perhaps even earlier, Alex had hoped that astronomical molecules would prove to: possess significant diagnostic utility; control many of the environments in which they exist; stimulate a wide variety of physicists and chemists who are at least as fascinated by the mechanisms forming and removing the molecules as by astronomy. His own research efforts have contributed greatly to the realization of that hope. This paper contains a few examples of: how molecules are used to diagnose large-scale dynamics in astronomical sources including star forming regions and supernovae; the ways in which molecular processes control the evolution of astronomical objects such as dense cores destined to become stars and very evolved giant stars; theoretical and laboratory investigations that elucidate the processes producing and removing astronomical molecules and allow their detection.

Dust in Interstellar Clouds, Evolved Stars and Supernovae

Outflows of pre-main-sequence stars drive shocks into molecular material within 0.01 - 1 pc of the young stars. The shock-heated gas emits infrared, millimeter and submillimeter lines of many species including. Dust grains are important charge carriers and play a large role in coupling the magnetic field and flow of neutral gas. Some effects of the dust on the dynamics of oblique shocks began to emerge in the 1990s. However, detailed models of these shocks are required for the calculation of the grain sputtering contribution to gas phase abundances of species producing observed emissions. We are developing such models. Some of the molecular species introduced into the gas phase by sputtering in shocks or by thermally driven desorption in hot cores form on grain surfaces. Recently laboratory studies have begun to contribute to the understanding of surface reactions and thermally driven desorption important for the chemistry of star forming clouds. Dusty plasmas are prevalent in many evolved stars just as well as in star forming regions. Radiation pressure on dust plays a significant role in mass loss from some post-main-sequence stars. The mechanisms leading to the formation of carbonaceous dust in the stellar outflows are similar to those important for soot formation in flames. However, nucleation in oxygen-rich outflows is less well understood and remains a challenging research area. Dust is observed in supernova ejecta that have not passed through the reverse shocks that develop in the interaction of ejecta with ambient media. Dust is detected in high redshift galaxies that are sufficiently young that the only stars that could have produced the dust were so massive that they became supernovae. Consequently, the issue of the survival of dust in strong supernova shocks is of considerable interest.

The effect of ambipolar resistivity on the formation of dense cores

We aim to understand the formation of dense cores by magnetosonic waves in regions where the thermal to magnetic pressure ratio is small. Because of the low-ionisation fraction in molecular clouds, neutral and charged particles are weakly coupled. Ambipolar diffusion then plays an important role in the formation process. A quiescent, uniform plasma is perturbed by a fast-mode wave. Using 2D numerical simulations, we follow the evolution of the fast-mode wave. The simulations are done with a multifluid, adaptive mesh refinement MHD code. Initial perturbations with wavelengths that are 2 orders of magnitude larger than the dissipation length are strongly affected by the ion-neutral drift. Only in situations where there are large variations in the magnetic field corresponding to a highly turbulent gas can fast-mode waves generate dense cores. This means that, in most cores, no substructure can be produced. However, Core D of TMC-1 is an exception to this case. Due to its atypically high ionisation fraction, waves with wavelengths up to 3 orders of magnitude greater than the dissipation length can be present. Such waves are only weakly affected by ambipolar diffusion and can produce dense substructure without large wave-amplitudes. Our results also explain the observed transition from Alfvenic turbulent motion at large scales to subsonic motions at the level of dense cores.