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Register a new userMapping the Escape Fraction of Ionizing Photons Using Resolved Stars: A Much Higher Escape Fraction for NGC 4214
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We demonstrate a new method for measuring the escape fraction of ionizing photons using Hubble Space Telescope imaging of resolved stars in NGC 4214, a local analog of high-redshift starburst galaxies that are thought to be responsible for cosmic reionization. Specifically, we forward model the UV through near-IR spectral energy distributions of $sim$83,000 resolved stars to infer their individual ionizing flux outputs. We constrain the local escape fraction by comparing the number of ionizing photons produced by stars to the number that are either absorbed by dust or consumed by ionizing the surrounding neutral hydrogen in individual star-forming regions. We find substantial spatial variation in the escape fraction (0-40%). Integrating over the entire galaxy yields a global escape fraction of 25% (+16%/-15%). This value is much higher than previous escape fractions of zero reported for this galaxy. We discuss sources of this apparent tension, and demonstrate that the viewing angle and the 3D ISM geometric effects are the cause. If we assume the NGC 4214 has no internal dust, like many high-redshift galaxies, we find an escape fraction of 59% (an upper-limit for NGC 4214). This is the first non-zero escape fraction measurement for UV-faint (M$_{rm FUV}$ = -15.9) galaxies at any redshift, and supports the idea that starburst UV-faint dwarf galaxies can provide a sufficient amount of ionizing photons to the intergalactic medium.
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Using broadband photometry from the Hubble Space Telescope in combination with Very Large Telescope narrowband Halpha observations of the nearby spiral galaxy NGC 300, we explore a method for estimating the escape fractions of hydrogen-ionizing photons from HII regions within this galaxy. Our goal in this concept study is to evaluate the spectral types of the most massive stars using the broadband data and estimating their ionizing photon output with the help of stellar atmosphere models. A comparison with the Halpha flux that gives the amount of ionized gas in the HII region provides a measure of the escape fraction of ionizing photons from that region. We performed some tests with a number of synthetic young clusters with varying parameters to assess the reliability of the method. However, we found that the derived stellar spectral types and consequently the expected ionizing photon luminosity of a region is highly uncertain. The tests also show that on one hand we tended to overestimate the integrated photon output of a region for young ages and low numbers of stars, and on the other hand we mostly underestimated the combined ionizing luminosity for a large stellar number and older cluster ages. We conclude that the proposed method of using stellar broadband photometry to infer the leakage of ionizing photons from HII regions is highly uncertain and dominated by the errors of the resulting stellar spectral types. Therefore this method is not suitable. Stellar spectra are needed to reliably determine the stellar types and escape fractions. Studies to this end have been carried out for the Magellanic Clouds.
The escape fraction of ionizing photons from galaxies is a crucial quantity controlling the cosmic ionizing background radiation and the reionization. Various estimates of this parameter can be obtained in the redshift range, z=0--6, either from direct observations or from the observed ionizing background intensities. We compare them homogeneously in terms of the observed flux density ratio of ionizing ($sim900$ AA rest-frame) to non-ionizing ultraviolet ($sim1500$ AA rest-frame) corrected for the intergalactic absorption. The escape fraction is found to increase by an order of magnitude, from a value less than 0.01 at $zla1$ to about 0.1 at $zga4$.
We calculate the hydrogen and helium-ionizing radiation escaping star-forming molecular clouds, as a function of the star cluster mass and compactness, using a set of high-resolution radiation-magneto-hydrodynamic simulations of star formation in self-gravitating, turbulent molecular clouds. In these simulations, presented in He, Ricotti and Geen (2019), the formation of individual massive stars are well resolved, and their UV radiation feedback and lifetime on the main sequence are modeled self-consistently. We find that the escape fraction of ionizing radiation from molecular clouds, $langle f_{rm esc}^{scriptscriptstyle rm MC}rangle$, decreases with increasing mass of the star cluster and with decreasing compactness. Molecular clouds with densities typically found in the local Universe have negligible $langle f_{rm esc}^{scriptscriptstyle rm MC}rangle$, ranging between $0.5%$ to $5%$. Ten times denser molecular clouds have $langle f_{rm esc}^{scriptscriptstyle rm MC}rangle approx 10%-20%$, while $100times$ denser clouds, which produce globular cluster progenitors, have $langle f_{rm esc}^{scriptscriptstyle rm MC}rangle approx 20%-60%$. We find that $langle f_{rm esc}^{scriptscriptstyle rm MC}rangle$ increases with decreasing gas metallicity, even when ignoring dust extinction, due to stronger radiation feedback. However, the total number of escaping ionizing photons decreases with decreasing metallicity because the star formation efficiency is reduced. We conclude that the sources of reionization at $z>6$ must have been very compact star clusters forming in molecular clouds about $100times$ denser than in todays Universe, which leads to a significant production of old globular clusters progenitors.
In this paper we calculate the escape fraction ($f_{rm esc}$) of ionizing photons from starburst galaxies. Using 2-D axisymmetric hydrodynamic simulations, we study superbubbles created by overlapping supernovae in OB associations. We calculate the escape fraction of ionizing photons from the center of the disk along different angles through the superbubble and the gas disk. After convolving with the luminosity function of OB associations, we show that the ionizing photons escape within a cone of $sim 40 ^circ$, consistent with observations of nearby galaxies. The evolution of the escape fraction with time shows that it falls initially as cold gas is accumulated in a dense shell. After the shell crosses a few scale heights and fragments, the escape fraction through the polar regions rises again. The angle-averaged escape fraction cannot exceed $sim [1- cos (1 , {rm radian})] = 0.5$ from geometrical considerations (using the emission cone opening angle). We calculate the dependence of the time- and angle-averaged escape fraction on the mid-plane disk gas density (in the range $n_0=0.15-50$ cm $^{-3}$) and the disk scale height (between $z_0=10-600$ pc). We find that the escape fraction is related to the disk parameters (the mid-plane disk density and scale height) roughly so that $f_{rm esc}^alpha n_0^2 z_0^3$ (with $alphaapprox 2.2$) is a constant. For disks with a given WNM temperature, massive disks have lower escape fraction than low mass galaxies. For Milky Way ISM parameters, we find $f_{rm esc}sim 5%$, and it increases to $approx 10%$ for a galaxy ten times less massive. We discuss the possible effects of clumpiness of the ISM on the estimate of the escape fraction and the implications of our results for the reionization of the universe.
We explore scenarios for reionizing the intergalactic medium with low galaxy ionizing photon escape fractions. We combine simulation-based halo-mass dependent escape fractions with an extrapolation of the observed galaxy rest-ultraviolet luminosity functions to solve for the reionization history from z=20 to z=4. We explore the posterior distributions for key unknown quantities, including the limiting halo mass for star-formation, the ionizing photon production efficiency, and a potential contribution from active galactic nuclei (AGN). We marginalize over the allowable parameter space using a Markov Chain Monte Carlo method, finding a solution which satisfies the most model-independent constraints on reionization. Our fiducial model can match observational constraints with an average escape fraction of <5% throughout the bulk of the epoch of reionization if: i) galaxies form stars down to the atomic cooling limit before reionization and a photosuppression mass of log(M_h/Msol)~9 during/after reionization (-13<M_UV,lim<-11); ii) galaxies become more efficient producers of ionizing photons at higher redshifts and fainter magnitudes, and iii) there is a significant, but sub-dominant, contribution by AGN at z < 7. In this model the faintest galaxies (M_UV>-15) dominate the ionizing emissivity, leading to an earlier start to reionization and a smoother evolution of the ionized volume filling fraction than models which assume a single escape fraction at all redshifts and luminosities. The ionizing emissivity from this model is consistent with observations at z=4-5 (and below, when extrapolated), in contrast to some models which assume a single escape fraction. Our predicted ionized volume filling fraction at z=7 of Q_HII=78% (+- 8%) is in ~1-2 sigma tension with observations of Lya emitters at z~7 and the damping wing analyses of the two known z>7 quasars, which prefer Q_HII,z=7~40-50%.
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