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Register a new userPHIBSS: Exploring the Dependence of the CO-H$_2$ Conversion Factor on Total Mass Surface Density at ${it z} < 1.5$
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Timothy Carleton
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We present an analysis of the relationship between the CO-H$_{2}$ conversion factor ($alpha_{rm CO}$) and total mass surface density ($Sigma_{rm tot}$) in star-forming galaxies at $z < 1.5$. Our sample, which is drawn from the IRAM Plateau de Bure HIgh-$z$ Blue Sequence Survey (PHIBSS) and the CO Legacy Database for GASS (COLD GASS), includes normal, massive star-forming galaxies that dominate the evolution of the cosmic star formation rate (SFR) at this epoch and probe the $Sigma_{rm tot}$ regime where the strongest variation in $alpha_{rm CO}$ is observed. We constrain $alpha_{rm CO}$ via existing CO observations, measurements of the star formation rate, and an assumed molecular gas depletion time ($t_{rm dep}$=$M_{rm gas}$/SFR) --- the latter two of which establish the total molecular gas mass independent of the observed CO luminosity. For a broad range of adopted depletion times, we find that $alpha_{rm CO}$ is independent of total mass surface density, with little deviation from the canonical Milky Way value. This runs contrary to a scenario in which $alpha_{rm CO}$ decreases as surface density increases within the extended clouds of molecular gas that potentially fuel clumps of star formation in $zsim1$ galaxies, similar to those observed in local ULIRGs. Instead, our results suggest that molecular gas, both at $zsim0$ and $zsim1$, is primarily in the form of self-gravitating molecular clouds. While CO observations suggest a factor of $sim3$ reduction in the average molecular gas depletion time between $z sim 0$ and $zsim1$, we find that, for typical galaxies, the structure of molecular gas and the process of star formation at $z sim 1$ is otherwise remarkably similar to that observed in local star-forming systems.
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We investigate the relationship between the dust-to-metals ratio (D/M) and the local interstellar medium environment at ~2 kpc resolution in five nearby galaxies: IC342, M31, M33, M101, and NGC628. A modified blackbody model with a broken power-law emissivity is used to model the dust emission from 100 to 500 um observed by Herschel. We utilize the metallicity gradient derived from auroral line measurements in HII regions whenever possible. Both archival and new CO rotational line and HI 21 cm maps are adopted to calculate gas surface density, including new wide field CO and HI maps for IC342 from IRAM and the VLA, respectively. We experiment with several prescriptions of CO-to-H$_2$ conversion factor, and compare the resulting D/M-metallicity and D/M-density correlations, both of which are expected to be non-negative from depletion studies. The D/M is sensitive to the choice of the conversion factor. The conversion factor prescriptions based on metallicity only yield too much molecular gas in the center of IC342 to obtain the expected correlations. Among the prescriptions tested, the one that yields the expected correlations depends on both metallicity and surface density. The 1-$sigma$ range of the derived D/M spans 0.40-0.58. Compared to chemical evolution models, our measurements suggest that the dust growth time scale is much shorter than the dust destruction time scale. The measured D/M is consistent with D/M in galaxy-integrated studies derived from infrared dust emission. Meanwhile, the measured D/M is systematically higher than the D/M derived from absorption, which likely indicates a systematic offset between the two methods.
Carbon monoxide (CO) provides crucial information about the molecular gas properties of galaxies. While $^{12}$CO has been targeted extensively, isotopologues such as $^{13}$CO have the advantage of being less optically thick and observations have recently become accessible across full galaxy discs. We present a comprehensive new dataset of $^{13}$CO(1-0) observations with the IRAM 30-m telescope of the full discs of 9 nearby spiral galaxies from the EMPIRE survey at a spatial resolution of $sim$1.5kpc. $^{13}$CO(1-0) is mapped out to $0.7-1r_{25}$ and detected at high signal-to-noise throughout our maps. We analyse the $^{12}$CO(1-0)-to-$^{13}$CO(1-0) ratio ($Re$) as a function of galactocentric radius and other parameters such as the $^{12}$CO(2-1)-to-$^{12}$CO(1-0) intensity ratio, the 70-to-160$mu$m flux density ratio, the star-formation rate surface density, the star-formation efficiency, and the CO-to-H$_2$ conversion factor. We find that $Re$ varies by a factor of 2 at most within and amongst galaxies, with a median value of 11 and larger variations in the galaxy centres than in the discs. We argue that optical depth effects, most likely due to changes in the mixture of diffuse/dense gas, are favored explanations for the observed $Re$ variations, while abundance changes may also be at play. We calculate a spatially-resolved $^{13}$CO(1-0)-to-H$_2$ conversion factor and find an average value of $1.0times10^{21}$ cm$^{-2}$ (K.km/s)$^{-1}$ over our sample with a standard deviation of a factor of 2. We find that $^{13}$CO(1-0) does not appear to be a good predictor of the bulk molecular gas mass in normal galaxy discs due to the presence of a large diffuse phase, but it may be a better tracer of the mass than $^{12}$CO(1-0) in the galaxy centres where the fraction of dense gas is larger.
CO is the most widely used observational tracer of molecular gas. The observable CO luminosity is translated to H_2 mass via a conversion factor, X_CO, which is a source of uncertainty and bias. Despite variations in X_CO, the empirically-determined solar neighborhood value is often applied across different galactic environments. To improve understanding of X_CO, we employ 3D magnetohydrodynamics simulations of the interstellar medium (ISM) in galactic disks with a large range of gas surface densities, allowing for varying metallicity, far-ultraviolet (FUV) radiation, and cosmic ray ionization rate (CRIR). With the TIGRESS simulation framework we model the three-phase ISM with self-consistent star formation and feedback, and post-process outputs with chemistry and radiation transfer to generate synthetic CO(1--0) and (2--1) maps. Our models reproduce the observed CO excitation temperatures, line-widths, and line ratios in nearby disk galaxies. X_CO decreases with increasing metallicity, with a power-law slope of -0.8 for the (1--0) line and -0.5 for the (2--1) line. X_CO also decreases at higher CRIR, and is insensitive to the FUV radiation. As density increases, X_CO first decreases due to increasing excitation temperature, and then increases when the emission is fully saturated. We provide fits between X_CO and observable quantities such as the line ratio, peak antenna temperature, and line brightness, which probe local gas conditions. These fits, which allow for varying beam size, may be used in observations to calibrate out systematic biases. We also provide estimates of the CO-dark H_2 fraction at different gas surface densities, observational sensitivities, and beam sizes.
We use the first systematic samples of CO millimeter emission in z>1 main-sequence star forming galaxies (SFGs) to study the metallicity dependence of the conversion factor {alpha}CO, from CO line luminosity to molecular gas mass. The molecular gas depletion rate inferred from the ratio of the star formation rate (SFR) to CO luminosity, is ~1 Gyr-1 for near-solar metallicity galaxies with stellar masses above M_S~1e11 M_sun. In this regime the depletion rate does not vary more than a factor of two to three as a function of molecular gas surface density, or redshift between z~0 and 2. Below M_S the depletion rate increases rapidly with decreasing metallicity. We argue that this trend is not caused by starburst events, by changes in the physical parameters of the molecular clouds, or by the impact of the fundamental metallicity-SFR-stellar mass relation. A more probable explanation is that the conversion factor is metallicity dependent and that star formation can occur in CO-dark gas. The trend is also expected theoretically from the effect of enhanced photodissociation of CO by ultraviolet radiation at low metallicity. From the available z~0 and z~1-3 samples we constrain the slope of the log({alpha}CO) -log (metallicity) relation to range between -1 and -2, fairly insensitive to the assumed slope of the gas-star formation rate relation. Because of the lower metallicities near the peak of the galaxy formation activity at z~1-2 compared to z~0, we suggest that molecular gas masses estimated from CO luminosities have to be substantially corrected upward for galaxies below M_S.
One of the key unanswered questions in the study of galaxy evolution is what physical processes inside galaxies drive the changes in the SFRs in individual galaxies that, taken together, produce the large decline in the global star-formation rate density (SFRD) to redshifts since z~2. Many studies of the SFR at intermediate redshifts have been made as a function of the integrated stellar mass of galaxies but these did not use information on the internal structural properties of the galaxies. In this paper we present a comparative study of the dependence of SFRs on the average surface mass densities (SigmaM) of galaxies of different morphological types up to z~1 using the zCOSMOS and SDSS surveys. The main findings about the evolution of these relatively massive galaxies are: 1) There is evidence that, for both SDSS ans zCOSMOS galaxies, the mean specific SFR within a given population (either disk-dominated or bulge-dominated) is independent of SigmaM; 2) The observed SSFR - SigmaM step-function relation is due, at all investigated redshifts, to the changing mix of disk-dominated and bulge-dominated galaxies as surface density increases and the strong difference in the average SSFR between disks and bulges. We also find a modest differential evolution in the size-mass relations of disk and spheroid galaxies; 3) The shape of the median SSFR - SigmaM relation is similar, but with median SSFR values that are about 5-6 times higher in zCOSMOS galaxies than for SDSS, across the whole range of SigmaM, and in both spheroid and disk galaxies. This increase matches that of the global SFRD of the Universe as a whole, emphasizing that galaxies of all types are contributing, proportionally, to the global increase in SFRD in the Universe back to these redshifts (abridged).
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