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Register a new userOptical observations of 23 distant Jupiter Family Comets, including 36P/Whipple at multiple phase angles
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Colin Snodgrass
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We present photometry on 23 Jupiter Family Comets (JFCs) observed at large heliocentric distance, primarily using the 2.5m Isaac Newton Telescope (INT). Snap-shot images were taken of 17 comets, of which 5 were not detected, 3 were active and 9 were unresolved and apparently inactive. These include 103P/Hartley 2, the target of the NASA Deep Impact extended mission, EPOXI. For 6 comets we obtained time-series photometry and use this to constrain the shape and rotation period of these nuclei. The data are not of sufficient quantity or quality to measure precise rotation periods, but the time-series do allow us to measure accurate effective radii and surface colours. Of the comets observed over an extended period, 40P/Vaisala 1, 47P/Ashbrook-Jackson and P/2004 H2 (Larsen) showed faint activity which limited the study of the nucleus. Light-curves for 94P/Russell 4 and 121P/Shoemaker-Holt 2 reveal rotation periods of around 33 and 10 hours respectively, although in both cases these are not unique solutions. 94P was observed to have a large range in magnitudes implying that it is one of the most elongated nuclei known, with an axial ratio a/b ge 3. 36P/Whipple was observed at 5 different epochs, with the INT and ESOs 3.6m NTT, primarily in an attempt to confirm the preliminary short rotation period apparent in the first data set. The combined data set shows that the rotation period is actually longer than 24 hours. A measurement of the phase function of 36Ps nucleus gives a relatively steep beta = 0.060 pm 0.019. Finally, we discuss the distribution of surface colours observed in JFC nuclei, and show that it is possible to trace the evolution of colours from the Kuiper Belt Object (KBO) population to the JFC population by applying a de-reddening function to the KBO colour distribution.
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Radio observations from decimetric to submillimetric wavelengths are now a basic tool for the investigation of comets. Spectroscopic observations allow us i) to monitor the gas production rate of the comets, by directly observing the water molecule, or by observing secondary products (e.g., the OH radical) or minor species (e.g., HCN); ii) to investigate the chemical composition of comets; iii) to probe the physical conditions of cometary atmospheres: kinetic temperature and expansion velocity. Continuum observations probe large-size dust particles and (for the largest objects) cometary nuclei. Comets are classified from their orbital characteristics into two separate classes: i) nearly-isotropic, mainly long-period comets and ii) ecliptic, short-period comets, the so-called Jupiter-family comets. These two classes apparently come from two different reservoirs, respectively the Oort cloud and the trans-Neptunian scattered disc. Due to their different history and - possibly - their different origin, they may have different chemical and physical properties that are worth being investigated. The present article reviews the contribution of radio observations to our knowledge of the Jupiter-family comets (JFCs). The difficulty of such a study is the commonly low gas and dust productions of these comets. Long-period, nearly-isotropic comets from the Oort cloud are better known from Earth-based observations. On the other hand, Jupiter-family comets are more easily accessed by space missions. However, unique opportunities to observe Jupiter-family comets are offered when these objects come by chance close to the Earth. About a dozen JFCs were successfully observed by radio techniques up to now. No obvious evidence for different properties between JFCs and other families of comets is found.
The spectra and images obtained through broadband BVR filters for Jupiter famaly comet P/2011 P1 were analyzed. We observed the comet on November 24, 2011, when its heliocentric distance was 5.43 AU. Two dimensional long slit spectra and photometric images were obtained using the focal reducer SCORPIO attached to the prime focus of the 6-m telescope BTA (SAO RAS, Russia). The spectra cover the wavelength range of 4200-7000 {AA}. No emissions of C2 and CO+, which are expected in this wavelength region, were detected above 3 sigma level. An upper limit in gas production rate of C2 is expected to be 1.1*10^24 mol*s^-1. The continuum shows a reddening effect with the normalized gradient of reflectivity along dispersion of 5.1% per 1000 {AA}. The color indices (B-V)=0.89 and (V-R) = 0.42 for the nucleus region or (B-V)=0.68 and (V-R)=0.39 for the coma region, which are derived from the photometric data, also evidence that the color of the cometary nucleus and dust are redder with respect to the Sun. The dust coma like a spiral galaxy adge on was fitted using a Monte Carlo model.
We explore the long-term evolution of a bias-free orbital representation of the cometary nuclei (with diameters above 2 km) of the Kuiper belt, using the so-called L7 synthetic model from CFEPS, which consists of three dynamical sub-populations: the Classical, the Resonant, and the Scattering. The dynamical evolution of belt particles is studied under the gravitational influence of the Sun and the four giant planets, as well as of the 34 largest known trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs with $H_V < 4$). Here we indistinctly call Dwarf Planets (DPs) to the full sample of 34 large TNOs. Over a 1 Gyr timescale, we analyze the secular influence of the DPs over Kuiper belt disk particles and their contribution to the injection rate of new visible Jupiter Family Comets (JFCs). We found that DPs globally increase the number of JFCs by 12.6% when compared with the comets produced by the giant planets alone. When considering each population separately, we find that the increment produced by DPs is 17%, 12%, and 3% for the Classical, Resonant, and Scattering populations, respectively. Given the rate of escapes from the Kuiper belt, we find upper limits to the number of objects in each population required to maintain the JFCs in steady-state; the results are $55.9times10^6$, $78.5times10^6$, and $274.3times10^6$ for the Scattering, Resonant, and Classical populations, respectively. Finally, we find that the Plutinos are the most important source of comets which were originally in a resonant configuration, where the presence of Pluto alone enhances by 10% the number of JFCs.
Sublimative outgassing of comets produces torques that alter the rotation state of their nuclei. Recently, parameterized sublimative torque models have been developed to study rotation state changes of individual comet nuclei and populations of cometary bodies. However, these models simplify the interactions between the escaping gas and cometary surface into only a few parameters that hide the details of these complex interactions. Here we directly compare the X-parameter model (Samarasinha & Mueller, 2013) with the SYORP model (Steckloff & Jacobson, 2016) to tease out insights into the details of the gas-surface interactions driving sublimative torques. We find that, for both of these models to accurately model sublimative torques, the number of sublimating molecules that contribute to the net torque is largely independent of the detailed shape and activity of the nucleus, but rather depends primarily on the size of the nucleus and the effective heliocentric distance of the comet. We suggest that cometary activity must be largely restricted to regions of steep gravitational surface slopes (above the angle of repose), where mass wasting can refresh activity by shedding mantles of refractory materials and exposing fresh volatiles. We propose a new classification scheme for comets based on the frequency of this mass-wasting process (relative to the timescale of activity fading): quasi-equilibrium, episodic, quasi-dormant, and extinct.
Context: Surveys in the visible and near-infrared spectral range have revealed the presence of low-albedo asteroids in cometary like orbits (ACOs). In contrast to Jupiter family comets (JFCs), ACOs are inactive, but possess similar orbital parameters. Aims: In this work, we discuss why ACOs are inactive, whereas JFCs show gas-driven dust activity, although both belong to the same class of primitive solar system bodies. Methods: We hypothesize that ACOs and JFCs have formed under the same physical conditions, namely by the gravitational collapse of ensembles of ice and dust aggregates. We use the memory effect of dust-aggregate layers under gravitational compression to discuss under which conditions the gas-driven dust activity of these bodies is possible. Results: Owing to their smaller sizes, JFCs can sustain gas-driven dust activity much longer than the bigger ACOs, whose sub-surface regions possess an increased tensile strength, due to gravitational compression of the material. The increased tensile strength leads to the passivation against dust activity after a relatively short time of activity. Conclusions: The gravitational-collapse model of the formation of planetesimals, together with the gravitational compression of the sub-surface material simultaneously, explains the inactivity of ACOs and the gas-driven dust activity of JFCs. Their initially larger sizes means that ACOs possess a higher tensile strength of their sub-surface material, which leads to a faster termination of gas-driven dust activity. Most objects with radii larger than $2 , mathrm{km}$ have already lost their activity due to former gravitational compression of their current surface material.
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