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تسجيل مستخدم جديدCore-Collapse Supernovae: Reflections and Directions
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H.-Thomas Janka
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Core-collapse supernovae are among the most fascinating phenomena in astrophysics and provide a formidable challenge for theoretical investigation. They mark the spectacular end of the lives of massive stars and, in an explosive eruption, release as much energy as the sun produces during its whole life. A better understanding of the astrophysical role of supernovae as birth sites of neutron stars, black holes, and heavy chemical elements, and more reliable predictions of the observable signals from stellar death events are tightly linked to the solution of the long-standing puzzle how collapsing stars achieve to explode. In this article our current knowledge of the processes that contribute to the success of the explosion mechanism are concisely reviewed. After a short overview of the sequence of stages of stellar core-collapse events, the general properties of the progenitor-dependent neutrino emission will be briefly described. Applying sophisticated neutrino transport in axisymmetric (2D) simulations with general relativity as well as in simulations with an approximate treatment of relativistic effects, we could find successful neutrino-driven explosions for a growing set of progenitor stars. First results of three-dimensional (3D) models have been obtained, and magnetohydrodynamic simulations demonstrate that strong initial magnetic fields in the pre-collapse core can foster the onset of neutrino-powered supernova explosions even in nonrotating stars. These results are discussed in the context of the present controversy about the value of 2D simulations for exploring the supernova mechanism in realistic 3D environments, and they are interpreted against the background of the current disagreement on the question whether the standing accretion shock instability (SASI) or neutrino-driven convection is the crucial agency that supports the onset of the explosion.
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Knowledge of the progenitors of core-collapse supernovae is a fundamental component in understanding the explosions. The recent progress in finding such stars is reviewed. The minimum initial mass that can produce a supernova has converged to 8 +/- 1
solar masses, from direct detections of red supergiant progenitors of II-P SNe and the most massive white dwarf progenitors, although this value is model dependent. It appears that most type Ibc supernovae arise from moderate mass interacting binaries. The highly energetic, broad-lined Ic supernovae are likely produced by massive, Wolf-Rayet progenitors. There is some evidence to suggest that the majority of massive stars above ~20 solar masses may collapse quietly to black-holes and that the explosions remain undetected. The recent discovery of a class of ultra-bright type II supernovae and the direct detection of some progenitor stars bearing luminous blue variable characteristics suggests some very massive stars do produce highly energetic explosions. The physical mechanism is open to debate and these SNe pose a challenge to stellar evolutionary theory.
In this review article we discuss selected developments regarding the role of the equation of state (EOS) in simulations of core-collapse supernovae. There are no first-principle calculations of the state of matter under supernova conditions since a
wide range of conditions is covered, in terms of density, temperature and isospin asymmetry. Instead, model EOS are commonly employed in supernova studies. These can be divided into regimes with intrinsically different degrees of freedom: heavy nuclei at low temperatures, inhomogeneous nuclear matter where light and heavy nuclei coexist together with unbound nucleons, and the transition to homogeneous matter at high densities and temperatures. In this article we discuss each of these phases with particular view on their role in supernova simulations.
We summarize our current understanding of gravitational wave emission from core-collapse supernovae. We review the established results from multi-dimensional simulations and, wherever possible, provide back-of-the-envelope calculations to highlight t
he underlying physical principles. The gravitational waves are predominantly emitted by protoneutron star oscillations. In slowly rotating cases, which represent the most common type of the supernovae, the oscillations are excited by multi-dimensional hydrodynamic instabilities, while in rare rapidly rotating cases, the protoneutron star is born with an oblate deformation due to the centrifugal force. The gravitational wave signal may be marginally visible with current detectors for a source within our galaxy, while future third-generation instruments will enable more robust and detailed observations. The rapidly rotating models that develop non-axisymmetric instabilities may be visible up to a megaparsec distance with the third-generation detectors. Finally, we discuss strategies for multi-messenger observations of supernovae.
Theory holds that a star born with an initial mass between about 8 and 140 times the mass of the Sun will end its life through the catastrophic gravitational collapse of its iron core to a neutron star or black hole. This core collapse process is tho
ught to usually be accompanied by the ejection of the stars envelope as a supernova. This established theory is now being tested observationally, with over three dozen core-collapse supernovae having had the properties of their progenitor stars directly measured through the examination of high-resolution images taken prior to the explosion. Here I review what has been learned from these studies and briefly examine the potential impact on stellar evolution theory, the existence of failed supernovae, and our understanding of the core-collapse explosion mechanism.
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estigate the physical mechanism behind this amplification using a linear perturbation theory. We model the shock wave as a one-dimensional planar discontinuity and consider its interaction with vorticity and entropy perturbations in the upstream flow. We find that, as the perturbations cross the shock, their total turbulent kinetic energy is amplified by a factor of $sim!2$, while the average linear size of turbulent eddies decreases by about the same factor. These values are not sensitive to the parameters of the upstream turbulence and the nuclear dissociation efficiency at the shock. Finally, we discuss the implication of our results for the supernova explosion mechanism. We show that the upstream perturbations can decrease the critical neutrino luminosity for producing explosion by several percent.
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