اشترك بالحزمة الذهبية واحصل على وصول غير محدود شمرا أكاديميا
تسجيل مستخدم جديدTranscriptional Activation of Elephant Shark Mineralocorticoid Receptor by Corticosteroids, Progesterone and Spironolactone
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We report the analysis of activation by corticosteroids and progesterone of full-length mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) from elephant shark, a cartilaginous fish belonging to the oldest group of jawed vertebrates. Based on their measured activities, aldosterone, cortisol, 11-deoxycorticosterone, corticosterone, 11-deoxcortisol, progesterone and 19-norprogesterone are potential physiological mineralocorticoids. However, aldosterone, the physiological mineralocorticoid in humans and other terrestrial vertebrates, is not found in cartilaginous or ray-finned fishes. Because progesterone is a precursor for corticosteroids that activate elephant shark MR, we propose that progesterone was an ancestral ligand for elephant shark MR. Although progesterone activates ray-finned fish MRs, progesterone does not activate human, amphibian or alligator MRs, suggesting that during the transition to terrestrial vertebrates, progesterone lost the ability to activate the MR. Comparison of RNA-sequence analysis of elephant shark MR with that of human MR suggests that MR expression in the human brain, heart, ovary, testis and other non-epithelial tissues evolved in cartilaginous fishes. Together, these data suggest that progesterone-activated MR may have unappreciated functions in elephant shark ovary and testis.
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Cortisol, corticosterone and aldosterone activate full-length glucocorticoid receptor (GR) from elephant shark, a cartilaginous fish belonging to the oldest group of jawed vertebrates. Activation by aldosterone a mineralocorticoid, indicates partial
divergence of elephant shark GR from the MR. Progesterone activates elephant shark MR, but not elephant shark GR. Progesterone inhibits steroid binding to elephant shark GR, but not to human GR. Deletion of the N-terminal domain (NTD) from elephant shark GR (Truncated GR) reduced the response to corticosteroids, while truncated and full-length elephant shark MR had similar responses to corticosteroids. Chimeras of elephant shark GR NTD fused to MR DBD+LBD had increased activation by corticosteroids and progesterone compared to full-length elephant shark MR. Elephant shark MR NTD fused to GR DBD+LBD had similar activation as full-length elephant shark MR, indicating that activation of human GR by the NTD evolved early in GR divergence from the MR.
We investigated progestin and corticosteroid activation of the progesterone receptor (PR) from elephant shark (Callorhinchus milii), a cartilaginous fish belonging to the oldest group of jawed vertebrates. Comparison with human PR experiments provide
s insights into the evolution of steroid activation of human PR. At 1 nM steroid, elephant shark PR is activated by progesterone, 17-hydroxy-progesterone, 20beta-hydroxy-progesterone, 11-deoxycorticosterone (21-hydroxyprogesterone) and 11-deoxycortisol. At 1 nM steroid, human PR is activated only by progesterone and11-deoxycorticosterone indicating increased specificity for progestins and corticosteroids during the evolution of human PR. RU486, an important clinical antagonist of human PR, did not inhibit progesterone activation of elephant shark PR. Cys-528 in elephant shark PR corresponds to Gly-722 in human PR, which is essential for RU486 inhibition of human PR. Confirming the importance of this site on elephant shark PR, RU486 inhibited progesterone activation of the Cys528Gly mutant PR. There also was a decline in activation of elephant shark Cys528Gly PR by 11-deoxycortisol, 17-hydroxy-progesterone and 20beta-hydroxy-progesterone and an increase in activation of human Gly722Cys PR by 11-deoxycortisol and decreased activation by corticosterone. One or more of these changes may have selected for the mutation corresponding to human glycine-722 PR that first evolved in platypus PR, a basal mammal.
The progesterone receptor (PR) mediates progesterone regulation of female reproductive physiology, as well as gene transcription in non-reproductive tissues, such as brain, bone, lung and vasculature, in both women and men. An unusual property of pro
gesterone is its high affinity for the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), which regulates electrolyte transport in the kidney in humans and other terrestrial vertebrates. In humans, rats, alligators and frogs, progesterone antagonizes activation of the MR by aldosterone, the physiological mineralocorticoid in terrestrial vertebrates. In contrast, in elephant shark, ray-finned fishes and chickens, progesterone activates the MR. Interestingly, cartilaginous fishes and ray-finned fishes do not synthesize aldosterone, raising the question of which steroid(s) activate the MR in cartilaginous fishes and ray-finned fishes. The simpler synthesis of progesterone, compared to cortisol and other corticosteroids, makes progesterone a candidate physiological activator of the MR in elephant sharks and ray-finned fishes. Elephant shark and ray-finned fish MRs are expressed in diverse tissues, including heart, brain and lung, as well as, ovary and testis, two reproductive tissues that are targets for progesterone, which together suggests a multi-faceted physiological role for progesterone activation of the MR in elephant shark and ray-finned fish. The functional consequences of progesterone as an antagonist of some terrestrial vertebrate MRs and as an agonist of fish and chicken MRs are not fully understood. Indeed, little is known of physiological activities of progesterone via any vertebrate MR.
We have developed a mathematical model of transcriptional activation by MarA in Escherichia coli, and used the model to analyze measurements of MarA-dependent activity of the marRAB, sodA, and micF promoters in mar-rob- cells. The model rationalizes
an unexpected poor correlation between the mid-point of in vivo promoter activity profiles and in vitro equilibrium constants for MarA binding to promoter sequences. Analysis of the promoter activity data using the model yielded the following predictions regarding activation mechanisms: (1) MarA activation of the marRAB, sodA, and micF promoters involves a net acceleration of the kinetics of transitions after RNA polymerase binding, up to and including promoter escape and message elongation; (2) RNA polymerase binds to these promoters with nearly unit occupancy in the absence of MarA, making recruitment of polymerase an insignificant factor in activation of these promoters; and (3) instead of recruitment, activation of the micF promoter might involve a repulsion of polymerase combined with a large acceleration of the kinetics of polymerase activity. These predictions are consistent with published chromatin immunoprecipitation assays of interactions between polymerase and the E. coli chromosome. A lack of recruitment in transcriptional activation represents an exception to the textbook description of activation of bacterial sigma-70 promoters. However, use of accelerated polymerase kinetics instead of recruitment might confer a competitive advantage to E. coli by decreasing latency in gene regulation.
Aldosterone, the main physiological mineralocorticoid in humans and other terrestrial vertebrates, first appears in lungfish, which are lobe-finned fish that are forerunners of terrestrial vertebrates. Aldosterone activation of the MR regulates inter
nal homeostasis of water, sodium and potassium, which was critical in the conquest of land by vertebrates. We studied transcriptional activation of the slender African lungfish MR by aldosterone, other corticosteroids and progesterone and find that aldosterone, 11-deoxycorticosterone, 11-deoxycortisol and progesterone have half-maximal responses (EC50s) below 1 nM and are potential physiological mineralocorticoids. In contrast, EC50s for corticosterone and cortisol were 23 nM and 66 nM, respectively. Unexpectedly, truncated lungfish MR, consisting of the DNA-binding, hinge and steroid-binding domains, had a stronger response to corticosteroids and progesterone than full-length lungfish MR, indicating that the N-terminal domain represses steroid activation of lungfish MR, unlike human MR in which the N-terminal domain contains an activation function. BLAST searches of GenBank did not retrieve a GR ortholog, leading us to test dexamethasone and triamcinolone for activation of lungfish MR. At 10 nM, both synthetic glucocorticoids are about 4-fold stronger than 10 nM aldosterone in activating full-length lungfish MR, leading us to propose that lungfish MR also functions as a GR.
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