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تسجيل مستخدم جديدImaging of the CO Snow Line in a Solar Nebula Analog
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Planets form in the disks around young stars. Their formation efficiency and composition are intimately linked to the protoplanetary disk locations of snow lines of abundant volatiles. We present chemical imaging of the CO snow line in the disk around TW Hya, an analog of the solar nebula, using high spatial and spectral resolution Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA) observations of N2H+, a reactive ion present in large abundance only where CO is frozen out. The N2H+ emission is distributed in a large ring, with an inner radius that matches CO snow line model predictions. The extracted CO snow line radius of ~ 30 AU helps to assess models of the formation dynamics of the Solar System, when combined with measurements of the bulk composition of planets and comets.
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A snow-line is the region of a protoplanetary disk at which a major volatile, such as water or carbon monoxide, reaches its condensation temperature. Snow-lines play a crucial role in disk evolution by promoting the rapid growth of ice-covered grains
. Signatures of the carbon monoxide snow-line (at temperatures of around 20 kelvin) have recently been imaged in the disks surrounding the pre-main-sequence stars TW Hydra and HD163296, at distances of about 30 astronomical units (au) from the star. But the water snow-line of a protoplanetary disk (at temperatures of more than 100 kelvin) has not hitherto been seen, as it generally lies very close to the star (less than 5 au away for solar-type stars). Water-ice is important because it regulates the efficiency of dust and planetesimal coagulation, and the formation of comets, ice giants and the cores of gas giants. Here we report ALMA images at 0.03-arcsec resolution (12 au) of the protoplanetary disk around V883 Ori, a protostar of 1.3 solar masses that is undergoing an outburst in luminosity arising from a temporary increase in the accretion rate. We find an intensity break corresponding to an abrupt change in the optical depth at about 42 au, where the elevated disk temperature approaches the condensation point of water, from which we conclude that the outburst has moved the water snow-line. The spectral behaviour across the snow-line confirms recent model predictions: dust fragmentation and the inhibition of grain growth at higher temperatures results in soaring grain number densities and optical depths. As most planetary systems are expected to experience outbursts caused by accretion during their formation our results imply that highly dynamical water snow-lines must be considered when developing models of disk evolution and planet formation.
We report Submillimeter Array (SMA) observations of CO (J=2--1, 3--2 and 6--5) and its isotopologues (13CO J=2--1, C18O J=2--1 and C17O J=3--2) in the disk around the Herbig Ae star HD 163296 at ~2 (250 AU) resolution, and interpret these data in the
framework of a model that constrains the radial and vertical location of the line emission regions. First, we develop a physically self-consistent accretion disk model with an exponentially tapered edge that matches the spectral energy distribution and spatially resolved millimeter dust continuum emission. Then, we refine the vertical structure of the model using wide range of excitation conditions sampled by the CO lines, in particular the rarely observed J=6--5 transition. By fitting 13CO data in this structure, we further constrain the vertical distribution of CO to lie between a lower boundary below which CO freezes out onto dust grains (T ~ 19 K) and an upper boundary above which CO can be photodissociated (the hydrogen column density from the disk surface is ~ 10^{21} cm-2). The freeze-out at 19 K leads to a significant drop in the gas-phase CO column density beyond a radius of ~155 AU, a CO snow line that we directly resolve. By fitting the abundances of all CO isotopologues, we derive isotopic ratios of 12C/13C, 16O/18O and 18O/17O that are consistent with quiescent interstellar gas-phase values. This detailed model of the HD 163296 disk demonstrates the potential of a staged, parametric technique for constructing unified gas and dust structure models and constraining the distribution of molecular abundances using resolved multi-transition, multi-isotope observations.
Accurate measurements of the physical structure of protoplanetary discs are critical inputs for planet formation models. These constraints are traditionally established via complex modelling of continuum and line observations. Instead, we present an
empirical framework to locate the CO isotopologue emitting surfaces from high spectral and spatial resolution ALMA observations. We apply this framework to the disc surrounding IM Lupi, where we report the first direct, i.e. model independent, measurements of the radial and vertical gradients of temperature and velocity in a protoplanetary disc. The measured disc structure is consistent with an irradiated self-similar disc structure, where the temperature increases and the velocity decreases towards the disc surface. We also directly map the vertical CO snow line, which is located at about one gas scale height at radii between 150 and 300 au, with a CO freeze-out temperature of $21pm2$ K. In the outer disc ($> 300$ au), where the gas surface density transitions from a power law to an exponential taper, the velocity rotation field becomes significantly sub-Keplerian, in agreement with the expected steeper pressure gradient. The sub-Keplerian velocities should result in a very efficient inward migration of large dust grains, explaining the lack of millimetre continuum emission outside of 300 au. The sub-Keplerian motions may also be the signature of the base of an externally irradiated photo-evaporative wind. In the same outer region, the measured CO temperature above the snow line decreases to $approx$ 15 K because of the reduced gas density, which can result in a lower CO freeze-out temperature, photo-desorption, or deviations from local thermodynamic equilibrium.
The condensation fronts (snow lines) of H2O, CO and other abundant volatiles in the midplane of a protoplanetary disk affect several aspects of planet formation. Locating the CO snow line, where the CO gas column density is expected to drop substanti
ally, based solely on CO emission profiles is challenging. This has prompted an exploration of chemical signatures of CO freeze-out. We present ALMA Cycle 1 observations of the N2H+ J=3-2 and DCO+ J=4-3 emission lines toward the disk around the Herbig Ae star HD~163296 at ~0.5 (60 AU) resolution, and evaluate their utility as tracers of the CO snow line location. The N2H+ emission is distributed in a ring with an inner radius at 90 AU, corresponding to a midplane temperature of 25 K. This result is consistent with a new analysis of optically thin C18O data, which implies a sharp drop in CO abundance at 90 AU. Thus N2H+ appears to be a robust tracer of the midplane CO snow line. The DCO+ emission also has a ring morphology, but neither the inner nor the outer radius coincides with the CO snow line location of 90 AU, indicative of a complex relationship between DCO+ emission and CO freeze-out in the disk midplane. Compared to TW Hya, CO freezes out at a higher temperature in the disk around HD 163296 (25 vs. 17 K in the TW Hya disk), perhaps due to different ice compositions. This highlights the importance of actually measuring the CO snow line location, rather than assuming a constant CO freeze-out temperature for all disks.
We have observed 152 nearby solar-type stars with the Infrared Spectrometer (IRS) on the Spitzer Space Telescope. Including stars that met our criteria but were observed in other surveys, we get an overall success rate for finding excesses in the lon
g wavelength IRS band (30-34 micron) of 11.8% +/- 2.4%. The success rate for excesses in the short wavelength band (8.5-12 micron) is ~1% including sources from other surveys. For stars with no excess at 8.5-12 microns, the IRS data set 3 sigma limits of around 1,000 times the level of zodiacal emission present in our solar system, while at 30-34 microns set limits of around 100 times the level of our solar system. Two stars (HD 40136 and HD 10647) show weak evidence for spectral features; the excess emission in the other systems is featureless. If the emitting material consists of large (10 micron) grains as implied by the lack of spectral features, we find that these grains are typically located at or beyond the snow line, ~1-35 AU from the host stars, with an average distance of 14 +/- 6 AU; however smaller grains could be located at significantly greater distances from the host stars. These distances correspond to dust temperatures in the range ~50-450 K. Several of the disks are well modeled by a single dust temperature, possibly indicative of a ring-like structure. However, a single dust temperature does not match the data for other disks in the sample, implying a distribution of temperatures within these disks. For most stars with excesses, we detect an excess at both IRS and MIPS wavelengths. Only three stars in this sample show a MIPS 70 micron excess with no IRS excess, implying that very cold dust is rare around solar-type stars.
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