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تسجيل مستخدم جديدThe formation of cosmic fullerenes from arophatic clusters
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Fullerenes have recently been identified in space and they may play a significant role in the gas and dust budget of various astrophysical objects including planetary nebulae (PNe), reflection nebulae (RNe) and H II regions. The tenuous nature of the gas in these environments precludes the formation of fullerene materials following known vaporization or combustion synthesis routes even on astronomical timescales. We have studied the processing of hydrogenated amorphous carbon (a-C:H or HAC) nano-particles and their specific derivative structures, which we name arophatics, in the circumstellar environments of young, carbon-rich PNe. We find that UV-irradiation of such particles can result in the formation of fullerenes, consistent with the known physical conditions in PNe and with available timescales.
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In 1985, During experiments aimed at understanding the mechanisms by which long-chain carbon molecules are formed in interstellar space and circumstellar shells, Harry Kroto and his collaborators serendipitously discovered a new form of carbon: fulle
renes. The most emblematic fullerene (i.e. C$_{60}$ buckminsterfullerene), contains exactly 60 carbon atoms organized in a cage-like structure similar to a soccer ball. Since their discovery impacted the field of nanotechnologies, Kroto and colleagues received the Nobel prize in 1996. The cage-like structure, common to all fullerene molecules, gives them unique properties, in particular an extraordinary stability. For this reason and since they were discovered in experiments aimed to reproduce conditions in space, fullerenes were sought after by astronomers for over two decades, and it is only recently that they have been firmly identified by spectroscopy, in evolved stars and in the interstellar medium. This identification offers the opportunity to study the molecular physics of fullerenes in the unique physical conditions provided by space, and to make the link with other large carbonaceous molecules thought to be present in space : polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
We compare and analyze the Spitzer mid-infrared spectrum of three fullerene-rich planetary nebulae in the Milky Way and the Magellanic Clouds; Tc1, SMP SMC16, and SMP LMC56. The three planetary nebulae share many spectroscopic similarities. The stron
gest circumstellar emission bands correspond to the infrared active vibrational modes of the fullerene species C60 and little or no emission is present from Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs). The strength of the fullerene bands in the three planetary nebulae is very similar, while the ratio of the [NeIII]15.5um/[NeII]12.8um fine structure lines, an indicator of the strength of the radiation field, is markedly different. This raises questions about their excitation mechanism and we compare the fullerene emission to fluorescent and thermal models. In addition, the spectra show other interesting and common features, most notably in the 6-9um region, where a broad plateau with substructure dominates the emission. These features have previously been associated with mixtures of aromatic/aliphatic hydrocarbon solids. We hypothesize on the origin of this band, which is likely related to the fullerene formation mechanism, and compare it with modeled Hydrogenated Amorphous Carbon that present emission in this region.
[Abridged] Fullerenes have been recently detected in various circumstellar and interstellar environments, raising the question of their formation pathway. It has been proposed that they can form by the photo-chemical processing of large polycyclic ar
omatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Following our previous work on the evolution of PAHs in the NGC 7023 reflection nebula, we evaluate, using photochemical modeling, the possibility that the PAH C$_{66}$H$_{20}$ (i.e. circumovalene) can lead to the formation of C$_{60}$ upon irradiation by ultraviolet photons. The chemical pathway involves full dehydrogenation, folding into a floppy closed cage and shrinking of the cage by loss of C$_2$ units until it reaches the symmetric C$_{60}$ molecule. At 10 from the illuminating star and with realistic molecular parameters, the model predicts that 100% of C$_{66}$H$_{20}$ is converted into C$_{60}$ in $sim$ 10$^5$ years, a timescale comparable to the age of the nebula. Shrinking appears to be the kinetically limiting step of the whole process. Hence, PAHs larger than C$_{66}$H$_{20}$ are unlikely to contribute significantly to the formation of C$_{60}$, while PAHs containing between 60 and 66 C atoms should contribute to the formation of C$_{60}$ with shorter timescales, and PAHs containing less than 60 C atoms will be destroyed. Assuming a classical size distribution for the PAH precursors, our model predicts absolute abundances of C$_{60}$ are up to several $10^{-4}$ of the elemental carbon, i.e. less than a percent of the typical interstellar PAH abundance, which is consistent with observational studies. According to our model, once formed, C$_{60}$ can survive much longer than other fullerenes because of the remarkable stability of the C$_{60}$ molecule at high internal energies.Hence, a natural consequence is that C$_{60}$ is more abundant than other fullerenes in highly irradiated environments.
We investigate the triggering of star formation and the formation of stellar clusters in molecular clouds that form as the ISM passes through spiral shocks. The spiral shock compresses gas into $sim$100 pc long main star formation ridge, where cluste
rs forming every 5-10 pc along the merger ridge. We use a gravitational potential based cluster finding algorithm, which extracts individual clusters, calculates their physical properties and traces cluster evolution over multiple time steps. Final cluster masses at the end of simulation range between 1000 and 30000 M$_{odot}$ with their characteristic half-mass radii between 0.1 pc and 2 pc. These clusters form by gathering material from 10-20 pc size scales. Clusters also show a mass - specific angular momentum relation, where more massive clusters have larger specific angular momentum due to the larger size scales, and hence angular momentum from which they gather their mass. The evolution shows that more massive clusters experiences hierarchical merging process, which increases stellar age spreads up to 2-3 Myr. Less massive clusters appear to grow by gathering nearby recently formed sinks, while more massive clusters with their large global gravitational potentials are increasing their mass growth from gas accretion.
We study the escape fraction of ionizing photons (f_esc) in two cosmological zoom-in simulations of galaxies in the reionization era with halo mass M_halo~10^10 and 10^11 M_sun (stellar mass M*~10^7 and 10^9 M_sun) at z=5 from the Feedback in Realist
ic Environments project. These simulations explicitly resolve the formation of proto-globular clusters (GCs) self-consistently, where 17-39% of stars form in bound clusters during starbursts. Using post-processing Monte Carlo radiative transfer calculations of ionizing radiation, we compute f_esc from cluster stars and non-cluster stars formed during a starburst over ~100 Myr in each galaxy. We find that the averaged f_esc over the lifetime of a star particle follows a similar distribution for cluster stars and non-cluster stars. Clusters tend to have low f_esc in the first few Myrs, presumably because they form preferentially in more extreme environments with high optical depths; the f_esc increases later as feedback starts to disrupt the natal cloud. On the other hand, non-cluster stars formed between cluster complexes or in the compressed shell at the front of a superbubble can also have high f_esc. We find that cluster stars on average have comparable f_esc to non-cluster stars. This result is robust across several star formation models in our simulations. Our results suggest that the fraction of ionizing photons from proto-GCs to cosmic reionization is comparable to the cluster formation efficiency in high-redshift galaxies and hence proto-GCs likely contribute an appreciable fraction of photons but are not the dominant sources for reionization.
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