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تسجيل مستخدم جديدA parametric study on the formation of extended star clusters and ultra-compact dwarf galaxies
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In the last decade, extended stellar clusters with masses in the range from a few 10^4 to 10^8 M_sun have been found in various types of galaxies in different environments. Objects with masses comparable to normal globular clusters (GCs) are called extended clusters (ECs), while objects with masses in the dwarf galaxy regime are called ultra-compact dwarf galaxies (UCDs). In heavily interacting galaxies star clusters tend to form in larger conglomerations called star cluster complexes (CCs). In this work we systematically scan a suitable parameter space for CCs and perform numerical simulations to study their further fate. The varied sizes and masses of the CCs cover a matrix of 5x6 values with CC Plummer radii between 10 - 160 pc and CC masses between 10^5.5 - 10^8 M_sun, which are consistent with observed CC parameters. The CCs of the parametric study are on orbits with distances between 20 kpc and 60 kpc. In addition, we studied also the evolution of CCs on a circular orbit at a distance of 60 kpc to verify that also extremely extended ECs and UCDs can be explained by our formation scenario. All 54 simulations end up with stable merger objects, wherein 26 to 97% of the initial CC mass is bound. The objects show a general trend of increasing effective radii with increasing mass. Despite the large range of input Plummer radii of the CCs (10 to 160 pc) the effective radii of the merger objects are constrained to values between 10 and 20 pc at the low mass end and to values between 15 and 55 pc at the high mass end. The structural parameters of the models are comparable to those of the observed ECs and UCDs. The results of the circular orbits demonstrate that even very extended objects like the M31 ECs found by Huxor in 2005 and the very extended (r_eff > 80 pc), high-mass UCDs can be explained by merged cluster complexes in regions with low gravitational fields at large distances.
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There has been significant controversy over the mechanisms responsible for forming compact stellar systems like ultra compact dwarfs (UCDs), with suggestions that UCDs are simply the high mass extension of the globular cluster (GC) population, or alt
ernatively, the liberated nuclei of galaxies tidally stripped by larger companions. Definitive examples of UCDs formed by either route have been difficult to find, with only a handful of persuasive examples of stripped-nucleus type UCDs being known. In this paper we present very deep Gemini/GMOS spectroscopic observations of the suspected stripped nucleus UCD NGC 4546-UCD1 taken in good seeing conditions (< 0.7). With these data we examine the spatially resolved kinematics and star formation history of this unusual object. We find no evidence of a rise in the central velocity dispersion of the UCD, suggesting that this UCD lacks a massive central black hole like those found in some other compact stellar systems, a conclusion confirmed by detailed dynamical modelling. Finally we are able to use our extremely high signal to noise spectrum to detect a temporally extended star formation history for this UCD. We find that the UCD was forming stars since the earliest epochs until at least 1-2 Gyr ago. Taken together these observations confirm that NGC 4546-UCD1 is the remnant nucleus of a nucleated dwarf galaxy that was tidally destroyed by NGC 4546 within the last 1-2 Gyr.
Ultra-compact dwarf galaxies (UCDs) are predominatly found in the cores of nearby galaxy clusters. Besides the Fornax and Virgo cluster, UCDs have also been confirmed in the twice as distant Hydra I and Centaurus clusters. Having (nearly) complete sa
mples of UCDs in some of these clusters allows the study of the bulk properties with respect to the environment they are living in. Moreover, the relation of UCDs to other stellar systems in galaxy clusters, like globular clusters and dwarf ellipticals, can be investigated in detail with the present data sets. The general finding is that UCDs seem to be a heterogenous class of objects. Their spatial distribution within the clusters is in between those of globular clusters and dwarf ellipticals. In the colour-magnitude diagram, blue/metal-poor UCDs coincide with the sequence of nuclear star clusters, whereas red/metal-rich UCDs reach to higher masses and might have originated from the amalgamation of massive star cluster complexes in merger or starburst galaxies.
We aim at quantifying the specific frequency of UCDs in a range of environments and at relating this to the frequency of globular clusters (GCs) and potential progenitor dwarf galaxies. Are the frequencies of UCDs consistent with being the bright tai
l of the GC luminosity function (GCLF)? We propose a definition for the specific frequency of UCDs, S_{N,UCD}=N_{UCD}*10^{0.4*(M_{V,host}-M_{V,0})}*c_{w}. The parameter M_{V,0} is the zeropoint of the definition, chosen such that the specific frequency of UCDs is the same as those of globular clusters, S_{N,GC}, if UCDs follow a simple extrapolation of the GCLF. The parameter c_{w} is a correction term for the GCLF width sigma. We apply our definition of S_{N,UCD} to results of spectroscopic UCD searches in the Fornax, Hydra and Centaurus galaxy clusters, two Hickson Compact Groups, and the Local Group. This includes a large database of 180 confirmed UCDs in Fornax. We find that the specific frequencies derived for UCDs match those of GCs very well, to within 10-50%. The ratio {S_{N,UCD}}/{S_{N,GC}} is 1.00 +- 0.44 for the four environments Fornax, Hydra, Centaurus, and Local Group, which have S_{N,GC} values. This good match also holds for individual giant galaxies in Fornax and in the Fornax intracluster-space. The error ranges of the derived UCD specific frequencies in the various environments then imply that not more than 50% of UCDs were formed from dwarf galaxies. We show that such a scenario would require >90% of primordial dwarfs in galaxy cluster centers (<100 kpc) to have been stripped of their stars. We conclude that the number counts of UCDs are fully consistent with them being the bright tail of the GC population. From a statistical point of view there is no need to invoke an additional formation channel.
We develop a simple analytical criterion to investigate the role of the environment on the onset of star formation. We will consider the main external agents that influence the star formation (i.e. ram pressure, tidal interaction, Rayleigh-Taylor and
Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities) in a spherical galaxy moving through an external environment. The theoretical framework developed here has direct applications to the cases of dwarf galaxies in galaxy clusters and dwarf galaxies orbiting our Milky Way system, as well as any primordial gas-rich cluster of stars orbiting within its host galaxy. We develop an analytic formalism to solve the fluid dynamics equations in a non-inertial reference frame mapped with spherical coordinates. The two-fluids instability at the interface between a stellar system and its surrounding hotter and less dense environment is related to the star formation processes through a set of differential equations. The solution presented here is quite general, allowing us to investigate most kinds of orbits allowed in a gravitationally bound system of stars in interaction with a major massive companion. We present an analytical criterion to elucidate the dependence of star formation in a spherical stellar system (as a dwarf galaxy or a globular cluster) on its surrounding environment useful in theoretical interpretations of numerical results as well as observational applications. We show how spherical coordinates naturally enlighten the interpretation of the two-fluids instability in a geometry that directly applies to astrophysical case. This criterion predicts the threshold value for the onset of star formation in a mass vs. size space for any orbit of interest. Moreover, we show for the first time the theoretical dependencies of the different instability phenomena acting on a system in a fully analytical way.
CONTEXT: The dynamical mass-to-light (M/L) ratios of massive ultra-compact dwarf galaxies (UCDs) are about 50% higher than predicted by stellar population models. AIMS: Here we investigate the possibility that these elevated M/L ratios are caused by
a central black hole (BH), heating up the internal motion of stars. We focus on a sample of ~50 extragalactic UCDs for which velocity dispersions and structural parameters have been measured. METHODS: Using up-to-date distance moduli and a consistent treatment of aperture and seeing effects, we calculate the ratio Psi=(M/L)_{dyn}/(M/L)_{pop} between the dynamical and the stellar population M/L of UCDs. For all UCDs with Psi>1 we estimate the mass of a hypothetical central BH needed to reproduce the observed integrated velocity dispersion. RESULTS: Massive UCDs (M>10^7 M_*) have an average Psi = 1.7 +-0.2, implying notable amounts of dark mass in them. We find that, on average, central BH masses of 10-15% of the UCD mass can explain these elevated dynamical M/L ratios. The implied BH masses in UCDs range from several 10^5 M_* to several 10^7 M_*. In the M_BH-Luminosity plane, UCDs are offset by about two orders of magnitude in luminosity from the relation derived for galaxies. Our findings can be interpreted such that massive UCDs originate from progenitor galaxies with masses around 10^9 M_*, and that those progenitors have SMBH occupation fractions of 60-100%. The suggested UCD progenitor masses agree with predictions from the tidal stripping scenario. Lower-mass UCDs (M<10^7 M_*) exhibit a bimodal distribution in Psi, suggestive of a coexistence of massive globular clusters and tidally stripped galaxies in this mass regime. CONCLUSIONS: Central BHs as relict tracers of tidally stripped progenitor galaxies are a plausible explanation for the elevated dynamical M/L ratios of UCDs.
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