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Both external environmental selection and internal lower-level evolution are essential for an integral picture of evolution. This paper proposes that the division of internal evolution into DNA/RNA pattern formation (genotype) and protein functional action (phenotype) resolves a universal conflict between fitness and evolvability. Specifically, this paper explains how this universal conflict drove the emergence of genotype-phenotype division, why this labor division is responsible for the extraordinary complexity of life, and how the specific ways of genotype-phenotype mapping in the labor division determine the paths and forms of evolution and development.
Despite numerous mass extinctions in the Phanerozoic eon, the overall trend in biodiversity evolution was not blocked and the life has never been wiped out. Almost all possible catastrophic events (large igneous province, asteroid impact, climate cha
The affinity of antibodies (Abs) produced in vivo for their target antigens (Ags) is typically well below the maximum affinity possible. Nearly 25 years ago, Foote and Eisen explained how an affinity ceiling could arise from constraints associated wi
The twenty protein coding amino acids are found in proteomes with different relative abundances. The most abundant amino acid, leucine, is nearly an order of magnitude more prevalent than the least abundant amino acid, cysteine. Amino acid metabolic
The probability distribution of sequences with maximum entropy that satisfies a given amino acid composition at each site and a given pairwise amino acid frequency at each site pair is a Boltzmann distribution with $exp(-psi_N)$, where the total inte