We discuss and illustrate contributions that optical interferometry has made on our current understanding of cool evolved stars. We include red giant branch (RGB) stars, asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars, and red supergiants (RSGs). Studies using o
ptical interferometry from visual to mid-infrared wavelengths have greatly increased our knowledge of their atmospheres, extended molecular shells, dust formation, and winds. These processes and the morphology of the circumstellar environment are important for the further evolution of these stars toward planetary nebulae (PNe) and core-collapse supernovae (SNe), and for the return of material to the interstellar medium.
Radio and infrared interferometry of SiO maser stars provide complementary information on the atmosphere and circumstellar environment at comparable spatial resolution. Here, we present the latest results on the atmospheric structure and the dust con
densation region of AGB stars based on our recent infrared spectro-interferometric observations, which represent the environment of SiO masers. We discuss, as an example, new results from simultaneous VLTI and VLBA observations of the Mira variable AGB star R Cnc, including VLTI near- and mid-infrared interferometry, as well as VLBA observations of the SiO maser emission toward this source. We present preliminary results from a monitoring campaign of high-frequency SiO maser emission toward evolved stars obtained with the APEX telescope, which also serves as a precursor of ALMA images of the SiO emitting region. We speculate that large-scale long-period chaotic motion in the extended molecular atmosphere may be the physical reason for observed deviations from point symmetry of atmospheric molecular layers, and for the observed erratic variability of high-frequency SiO maser emission
We obtained K-band spectro-interferometric observations of the Miras R Cnc, X Hya, W Vel, and RW Vel with a spectral resolution of 1500 using the VLTI/AMBER instrument. We obtained concurrent JHKL photometry using the the Mk II instrument at the SAAO
. Our sources have wavelength-dependent visibility values that are consistent with earlier low-resolution AMBER observations of S Ori and with the predictions of dynamic model atmosphere series based on self-excited pulsation models. The wavelength-dependent UD diameters show a minimum near the near-continuum bandpass at 2.25 um. They increase by up to 30% toward the H2O band at 2.0 um and by up to 70% at the CO bandheads. The dynamic model atmosphere series show a consistent wavelength-dependence, and their parameters such as the visual phase, effective temperature, and distances are consistent with independent estimates. The closure phases have significantly wavelength-dependent non-zero values indicating deviations from point symmetry. For example, the R Cnc closure phase is 110 degr in the 2.0 um H2O band, corresponding for instance to an additional unresolved spot contributing 3% of the total flux at a separation of ~4 mas. Our observations are consistent with the predictions of the latest dynamic model atmosphere series based on self-excited pulsation models. The wavelength-dependent radius variations are interpreted as the effect of molecular layers. The wavelength-dependent closure phase values are indicative of deviations from point symmetry at all wavelengths, thus a complex non-spherical stratification of the extended atmosphere. In particular, the significant deviation from point symmetry in the H2O band is interpreted as a signature on large scales of inhomogeneities or clumps in the water vapor layer. The observed inhomogeneities might be caused by pulsation- and shock-induced chaotic motion in the extended atmosphere.
We present recent studies using the near-infrared instrument AMBER of the VLT Interferometer (VLTI) to investigate the structure and shaping processes within the extended atmosphere of AGB stars. Spectrally resolved near-infrared AMBER observations o
f the Mira variable S Ori have revealed wavelength-dependent apparent angular sizes. These data were successfully compared to dynamic model atmospheres, which predict wavelength-dependent radii because of geometrically extended molecular layers. Most recently, AMBER closure phase measurements of several AGB stars have also revealed wavelength-dependent deviations from 0/180 deg., indicating deviations from point symmetry. The variation of closure phase with wavelength indicates a complex non-spherical stratification of the extended atmosphere, and may reveal whether observed asymmetries are located near the photosphere or in the outer molecular layers. Concurrent observations of SiO masers located within the extended molecular layers provide us with additional information on the morphology, conditions, and kinematics of this shell. These observations promise to provide us with new important insights into the shaping processes at work during the AGB phase. With improved imaging capabilities at the VLTI, we expect to extend the successful story of imaging studies of planetary nebulae to the photosphere and extended outer atmosphere of AGB stars.
We present an overview on our project to study the extended atmospheres and dust formation zones of Mira stars using coordinated observations with the Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI), the Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), and the Atacama Pa
thfinder Experiment (APEX). The data are interpreted using an approach of combining recent dynamic model atmospheres with a radiative transfer model of the dust shell, and combining the resulting model structure with a maser propagation model.
Aims: We present J, H, K interferometry with a spectral resolution of 35 for the Mira variable S Orionis. We aim at measuring the diameter variation as a function of wavelength that is expected due to molecular layers lying above the continuum-formin
g photosphere. Methods: Visibility data of S Ori were obtained at phase 0.78 with the VLTI/AMBER instrument using the fringe tracker FINITO at 29 spectral channels between 1.29 and 2.32 mu. Apparent uniform disk (UD) diameters were computed for each spectral channel. In addition, the visibility data were directly compared to predictions by recent self-excited dynamic model atmospheres. Results: S Ori shows significant variations in the visibility values as a function of spectral channel that can only be described by a clear variation in the apparent angular size with wavelength. The closure phase values are close to zero at all spectral channels, indicating the absence of asymmetric intensity features. The apparent UD angular diameter is smallest at about 1.3 and 1.7 mu and increases by a factor of ~1.4 around 2.0 mu. The minimum UD angular diameter is 8.1 pm 0.5 mas, corresponding to ~420 R_sun. The S Ori visibility data and the apparent UD variations can be explained reasonably well by a dynamic atmosphere model that includes molecular layers. Conclusions: The measured visibility and UD diameter variations with wavelength resemble and generally confirm the predictions by recent dynamic model atmospheres. [abridged]
We present the first multi-epoch study that includes concurrent mid-infrared and radio interferometry of an oxygen-rich Mira star. We obtained mid-infrared interferometry of S Ori with VLTI/MIDI at four epochs between December 2004 and December 2005.
We concurrently observed v=1, J=1-0 (43.1 GHz), and v=2, J=1-0 (42.8 GHz) SiO maser emission toward S Ori with the VLBA at three epochs. The MIDI data are analyzed using self-excited dynamic model atmospheres including molecular layers, complemented by a radiative transfer model of the circumstellar dust shell. The VLBA data are reduced to the spatial structure and kinematics of the maser spots. The modeling of our MIDI data results in phase-dependent continuum photospheric angular diameters between about 7.9 mas (Phase 0.55) and 9.7 mas (Phase 1.16). The dust shell can best be modeled with Al2O3 grains using phase-dependent inner boundary radii between 1.8 and 2.4 photospheric radii. The dust shell appears to be more compact with greater optical depth near visual minimum, and more extended with lower optical depth after visual maximum. The ratios of the SiO maser ring radii to the photospheric radii are between about 1.9 and 2.4. The maser spots mark the region of the molecular atmospheric layers just beyond the steepest decrease in the mid-infrared model intensity profile. Their velocity structure indicates a radial gas expansion. Al2O3 dust grains and SiO maser spots form at relatively small radii of 1.8-2.4 photospheric radii. Our results suggest increased mass loss and dust formation close to the surface near the minimum visual phase, when Al2O3 dust grains are co-located with the molecular gas and the SiO maser shells, and a more expanded dust shell after visual maximum. Silicon does not appear to be bound in dust, as our data show no sign of silicate grains.
