A series of optical and one near-infrared nebular spectra covering the first year of the Type Ia supernova SN 2011fe are presented and modelled. The density profile that proved best for the early optical/ultraviolet spectra, rho-11fe, was extended to
lower velocities to include the regions that emit at nebular epochs. Model rho-11fe is intermediate between the fast deflagration model W7 and a low-energy delayed-detonation. Good fits to the nebular spectra are obtained if the innermost ejecta are dominated by neutron-rich, stable Fe-group species, which contribute to cooling but not to heating. The correct thermal balance can thus be reached for the strongest [FeII] and [FeIII] lines to be reproduced with the observed ratio. The 56Ni mass thus obtained is 0.47 +/- 0.05 Mo. The bulk of 56Ni has an outermost velocity of ~8500 km/s. The mass of stable iron is 0.23 +/- 0.03 Mo. Stable Ni has low abundance, ~10^{-2} Mo. This is sufficient to reproduce an observed emission line near 7400 A. A sub-Chandrasekhar explosion model with mass 1.02 Mo and no central stable Fe does not reproduce the observed line ratios. A mock model where neutron-rich Fe-group species are located above 56Ni following recent suggestions is also shown to yield spectra that are less compatible with the observations. The densities and abundances in the inner layers obtained from the nebular analysis, combined with those of the outer layers previously obtained, are used to compute a synthetic bolometric light curve, which compares favourably with the light curve of SN 2011fe.
BL Lac objects are active nuclei, hosted in massive elliptical galaxies, the emission of which is dominated by a relativistic jet closely aligned with the line of sight. This implies the existence of a parent population of sources with a misaligned j
et, that have been identified with low-power radiogalaxies. The spectrum of BL Lacs, dominated by non-thermal emission over the whole electromagnetic range, together with bright compact radio cores, high luminosities, rapid and large amplitude flux variability at all frequencies and strong polarization make these sources an optimal laboratory for high energy astrophysics. A most distinctive characteristic of the class is the weakness or absence of spectral lines, that historically hindered the identification of their nature and ever thereafter proved to be a hurdle in the determination of their distance. In this paper we review the main observational facts that contribute to the present basic interpretation of this class of active galaxies. We overview the history of the BL Lac objects research field and their population as it emerged from multi-wavelength surveys. The properties of the flux variability and polarization, compared with those at radio, X-ray and gamma-ray frequencies, are summarized together with the present knowledge of the host galaxies, their environments, and central black hole masses. We focus this review on the optical observations, that played a crucial role in the early phase of BL Lacs studies, and, in spite of extensive radio, X-ray, and recently gamma-ray observations, could represent the future major contribution to the unveiling of the origin of these sources. In particular they could provide a firm conclusion on the long debated issue of the cosmic evolution of this class of active galactic nuclei and on the connection between formation of supermassive black holes and relativistic jets.
The kinetic energy of supernovae (SNe) accompanied by gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) tends to cluster near E52 erg, with 2.E52 erg an upper limit to which no compelling exceptions are found (assuming a certain degree of asphericity), and it is always signif
icantly larger than the intrinsic energy of the GRB themselves (corrected for jet collimation). This energy is strikingly similar to the maximum rotational energy of a neutron star rotating with period 1 ms. It is therefore proposed that all GRBs associated with luminous SNe are produced by magnetars. GRBs that result from black hole formation (collapsars) may not produce luminous SNe. X-ray Flashes (XRFs), which are associated with less energetic SNe, are produced by neutron stars with weaker magnetic field or lower spin.
Multiwavelength variability of blazars offers indirect insight into their powerful engines and on the mechanisms through which energy is propagated from the centre down the jet. The BL Lac object Mkn 421 is a TeV emitter, a bright blazar at all wavel
engths, and therefore an excellent target for variability studies. Mkn 421 was observed by INTEGRAL and Fermi-LAT in an active state on 16-21 April 2013. Well sampled optical, soft, and hard X-ray light curves show the presence of two flares. The average flux in the 20-100 keV range is 9.1e-11 erg/s/cm2 (~4.5 mCrab) and the nuclear average apparent magnitude, corrected for Galactic extinction, is V ~12.2. In the time-resolved X-ray spectra (3.5-60 keV), which are described by broken power laws and, marginally better, by log-parabolic laws, we see a hardening that correlates with flux increase, as expected in refreshed energy injections in a population of electrons that later cool via synchrotron radiation. The hardness ratios between the JEM-X fluxes in two different bands and between the JEM-X and IBIS/ISGRI fluxes confirm this trend. During the observation, the variability level increases monotonically from the optical to the hard X-rays, while the large LAT errors do not allow a significant assessment of the MeV-GeV variability. The cross-correlation analysis during the onset of the most prominent flare suggests a monotonically increasing delay of the lower frequency emission with respect to that at higher frequency, with a maximum time-lag of about 70 minutes, that is however not well constrained. The spectral energy distributions from the optical to the TeV domain are satisfactorily described by homogeneous models of blazar emission based on synchrotron radiation and synchrotron self-Compton scattering, except in the state corresponding to the LAT softest spectrum and highest flux.
SN2010ah, a very broad-lined type Ic SN discovered by the Palomar Transient Factory, was interesting because of its relatively high luminosity and the high velocity of the absorption lines, which was comparable to that of GRB/SNe, suggesting a high e
xplosion kinetic energy. However, no GRB was detected in association with the SN. Here, the properties of SN2010ah are determined with higher accuracy than previous studies through modelling. New Subaru telescope photometry is presented. A bolometric light curve is constructed taking advantage of the spectral similarity with SN1998bw. Radiation transport tools are used to reproduce the spectra and the light curve. The results thus obtained regarding ejecta mass, composition and kinetic energy are then used to compute a synthetic light curve. This is in reasonable agreement with the early bolometric light curve of SN2010ah, but a high abundance of 56Ni at high velocity is required to reproduce the early rise, while a dense inner core must be used to reproduce the slow decline at late phases. The high-velocity 56Ni cannot have been located on our line of sight, which may be indirect evidence for an off-axis, aspherical explosion. The main properties of SN2010ah are: ejected mass ~ 3 Mo; kinetic energy ~10^52 erg, M(56Ni) ~ 0.25 Mo. The mass located at v >~ 0.1c is ~0.2 Mo. Although these values, in particular the kinetic energy, are quite large for a SN Ic, they are all smaller (especially the ejecta mass) than those typical of GRB/SNe. This confirms the tendency for these quantities to correlate, and suggests that there are minimum requirements for a GRB/SN, which SN2010ah may not meet although it comes quite close. Depending on whether a neutron star or a black hole was formed following core collapse, SN2010ah was the explosion of a CO core of ~ 5-6 Mo, pointing to a progenitor mass of ~24 - 28 Mo.
The Italian communities engaged in Gamma-Ray Burst (GRB) and supernova research have been using actively the ESO telescopes and have contributed to improve and refine the observing techniques and even to guide the characteristics and performances of
the instruments that were developed. Members of these two communities have recently found ground for a close collaboration on the powerful supernovae that underlie some GRBs. I will review the programs that have led to some important discoveries and milestones on thermonuclear and core-collapse supernovae and on GRBs.
Extragalactic nuclear activity is best explored with observations at high energies, where the most extreme flux and spectral variations are expected to occur, witnessing changes in the accretion flow or in the kinematics of the plasma. In active gala
ctic nuclei of blazar type, these variations are the most dramatic. By following blazar outbursts from their onset and by correlating the observed variations at many different wavelengths we can reconstruct the behavior of the plasma and map out the development of the flare within the jet. The advent of the Fermi satellite has allowed the start of a systematic and intensive monitoring program of blazars. Blazar outbursts are very effectively detected by the LAT instrument in the MeV-GeV domain, and these can be promptly followed up with other facilities. Based on a Fermi LAT detection of a high MeV-GeV state, we have observed the blazar PKS 1502+106 with the INTEGRAL satellite between 9 and 11 August 2008. Simultaneous Swift observations have been also accomplished, as well as optical follow-up at the Nordic Optical Telescope. The IBIS instrument onboard INTEGRAL detected a source at a position inconsistent with the optical coordinates of PKS 1502+106, but consistent with those of the Seyfert 1 galaxy Mkn 841, located at 6.8 arcmin south-west from the blazar, which is therefore responsible for all the hard X-ray flux detected by IBIS. At the location of the blazar, IBIS sets an upper limit of ~10^{-11} erg/s/cm2 on the 15-60 keV flux, that turns out to be consistent with a model of inverse Compton scattering accounting for the soft X-ray and gamma-ray spectra measured by Swift XRT and Fermi LAT, respectively. The gamma-ray spectrum during the outburst indicates substantial variability of the characteristic energy of the inverse Compton component in this blazar.(abridged).
We have observed four low-luminosity active galactic nuclei classified as Type 1 LINERs with the X-ray Telescope (XRT) and the UltraViolet-Optical Telescope (UVOT) onboard Swift, in an attempt to clarify the main powering mechanism of this class of n
earby sources. Among our targets, we detect X-ray variability in NGC 3998 for the first time. The light curves of this object reveal variations of up to 30% amplitude in half a day, with no significant spectral variability on this time scale. We also observe a decrease of ~30% over 9 days, with significant spectral softening. Moreover, the X-ray flux is ~40% lower than observed in previous years. Variability is detected in M 81 as well, at levels comparable to those reported previously: a flux increase in the hard X-rays (1-10 keV) of 30% in ~3 hours and variations by up to a factor of 2 within a few years. This X-ray behaviour is similar to that of higher-luminosity, Seyfert-type, objects. Using previous high-angular-resolution imaging data from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), we evaluate the diffuse UV emission due to the host galaxy and isolate the nuclear flux in our UVOT observations. All sources are detected in the UV band, at levels similar to those of the previous observations with HST. The XRT (0.2-10 keV) spectra are well described by single power-laws and the UV-to-X-ray flux ratios are again consistent with those of Seyferts and radio-loud AGNs of higher luminosity. The similarity in X-ray variability and broad-band energy distributions suggests the presence of similar accretion and radiation processes in low- and high-luminosity AGNs.
We observed the massive binary stellar system of Eta Carinae in the 0.3-10 keV energy range with the X-ray Telescope onboard the Swift satellite during the period 15 December 2008 - 11 March 2009, i.e. 1 month before to 2 months after the X-ray drop
from maximum to minimum, thought to be associated with the periastron encounter of the primary star by the hot companion. Beginning a few months before eclipse, the interaction between the winds of the two stars intensifies and the X-ray flux reaches maximum. The flux drops dramatically thereafter, subsiding in about 20 days to a level that is at least a factor 10 lower than the high state, i.e. the X-ray emission state of the system during the largest fraction of its 5.52 yr orbit (~e-11 erg/s/cm2). Unlike in previous cycles, when the low state lasted about 2.5 months, observations with RXTE showed that the X-ray flux started its recovery to normal level about 1.5 months after the minimum. We suggest that this early recovery may be due to the fact that the companion wind reaches terminal velocity before encountering the shock.
Models for the spectra and the light curve, in the photospheric as well as in the late nebular phase, are used to infer the properties of the very radio-bright, broad-lined type IIb Supernova 2003bg. Consistent fits to the light curve and the spectra
l evolution are obtained with an explosion that ejected ~ 4 M_sun of material with a kinetic energy of ~ 5 10^51 erg. A thin layer of hydrogen, comprising ~ 0.05 M_sun, is inferred to be present in the ejecta at the highest velocities (v >~ 9000 km/s), while a thicker helium layer, comprising ~ 1.25 M_sun, was ejected at velocities between 6500 and 9000 km/s. At lower velocities, heavier elements are present, including ~ 0.2 M_sun of 56Ni that shape the light curve and the late-time nebular spectra. These values suggest that the progenitor star had a mass of ~ 20-25 M_sun (comparable to, but maybe somewhat smaller than that of the progenitor of the XRF/SN 2008D). The rather broad-lined early spectra are the result of the presence of a small amount of material (~ 0.03 M_sun) at velocities > 0.1 c, which carries ~ 10 % of the explosion kinetic energy. No clear signatures of a highly aspherical explosion are detected.
