We perform a detailed modelling of the post-outburst surface emission of the low magnetic field magnetar SGR 0418+5729. The dipolar magnetic field of this source, B=6x10^12 G estimated from its spin-down rate, is in the observed range of magnetic fie
lds for normal pulsars. The source is further characterized by a high pulse fraction and a single-peak profile. Using synthetic temperature distribution profiles, and fully accounting for the general-relativistic effects of light deflection and gravitational redshift, we generate synthetic X-ray spectra and pulse profiles that we fit to the observations. We find that asymmetric and symmetric surface temperature distributions can reproduce equally well the observed pulse profiles and spectra of SGR 0418. Nonetheless, the modelling allows us to place constraints on the system geometry (i.e. the angles $psi$ and $xi$ that the rotation axis makes with the line of sight and the dipolar axis, respectively), as well as on the spot size and temperature contrast on the neutron star surface. After performing an analysis iterating between the pulse profile and spectra, as done in similar previous works, we further employed, for the first time in this context, a Markov-Chain Monte-Carlo approach to extract constraints on the model parameters from the pulse profiles and spectra, simultaneously. We find that, to reproduce the observed spectrum and flux modulation: (a) the angles must be restricted to $65deg < psi+xi < 125deg$ or $235deg < psi+xi <295deg$; (b) the temperature contrast between the poles and the equator must be at least a factor of $sim6$, and (c) the size of the hottest region ranges between 0.2-0.7 km (including uncertainties on the source distance). Last, we interpret our findings within the context of internal and external heating models.
Long-Duration Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs) are powerful probes of the Universe star formation history, but correlation between the two depends on the highly debated presence/strength of a metallicity bias. To investigate this correlation, we use a phenome
nological model that successfully describes star formation rates, luminosities and stellar masses of star forming galaxies, applying it to GRB production. We predict luminosities, stellar masses, and metallicities of host galaxies depending on the metallicity bias. Our best-fitting model includes a moderate metallicity bias, broadly consistent with the large majority of long-duration GRBs in metal-poor environments originating from collapsars (probability ~83%), but with a secondary contribution (~17%) from metal-independent production channels, such as binary evolution. Because of the mass-metallicity relation of galaxies, the maximum likelihood model predicts that the metal-independent channel becomes dominant at z<2, where hosts have higher metallicities and collapsars are suppressed. This possibly explains why some studies find no clear evidence of a metal-bias based on low-z samples. However, while metallicity predictions match observations well at high redshift, there is tension with low redshift observations, since a significant fraction of GRB hosts are predicted to have (near-)solar metallicity. This is in contrast to observations, unless obscured, metal-rich hosts are preferentially missed in current datasets, and suggests that lower efficiencies of the metal-independent GRB channel might be preferred following a comprehensive fit from complete samples. Overall, we are able to establish the presence of a metallicity bias for GRB production, but continued characterization of GRB host galaxies is needed to quantify its strength.
The thermal X-ray spectra of several isolated neutron stars display deviations from a pure blackbody. The accurate physical interpretation of these spectral features bears profound implications for our understanding of the atmospheric composition, ma
gnetic field strength and topology, and equation of state of dense matter. With specific details varying from source to source, common explanations for the features have ranged from atomic transitions in the magnetized atmospheres or condensed surface, to cyclotron lines generated in a hot ionized layer near the surface. Here we quantitatively evaluate the X-ray spectral distortions induced by inhomogeneous temperature distributions of the neutron star surface. To this aim, we explore several surface temperature distributions, we simulate their corresponding general relativistic X-ray spectra (assuming an isotropic, blackbody emission), and fit the latter with a single blackbody model. We find that, in some cases, the presence of a spurious spectral line is required at a high significance level in order to obtain statistically acceptable fits, with central energy and equivalent width similar to the values typically observed. We also perform a fit to a specific object, RX J0806.4-4123, finding several surface temperature distributions able to model the observed spectrum. The explored effect is unlikely to work in all sources with detected lines, but in some cases it can indeed be responsible for the appearance of such lines. Our results enforce the idea that surface temperature anisotropy can be an important factor that should be considered and explored also in combination with more sophisticated emission models like atmospheres.
Measuring the star formation rate (SFR) at high redshift is crucial for understanding cosmic reionization and galaxy formation. Two common complementary approaches are Lyman-Break-Galaxy (LBG) surveys for large samples and Gamma-Ray-Burst (GRB) obser
vations for sensitivity to SFR in small galaxies. The z>4 GRB-inferred SFR is higher than the LBG rate, but this difference is difficult to understand, as both methods rely on several modeling assumptions. Using a physically motivated galaxy luminosity function model, with star formation in dark-matter halos with virial temperature Tvir>2e4 K (M_DM>2e8 M_sun), we show that GRB and LBG-derived SFRs are consistent if GRBs extend to faint galaxies (M_AB<-11). To test star formation below the detection limit L_lim~0.05L^*_{z=3} of LBG surveys, we propose to measure the fraction f_det(L>L_lim,z) of GRB hosts with L>L_lim. This fraction quantifies the missing star formation fraction in LBG surveys, constraining the mass-suppression scale for galaxy formation, with weak dependence on modeling assumptions. Because f_det(L>L_lim,z) corresponds to the ratio of star formation rates derived from LBG and GRB surveys, if these estimators are unbiased, measuring f_det(L>L_lim,z) also constrains the redshift evolution of the GRB production rate per unit mass of star formation. Our analysis predicts significant success for GRB host detections at z~5 with f_det(L>L_lim,z)~0.4, but rarer detections at z>6. By analyzing the upper limits on host-galaxy luminosities of six z>5 GRBs from literature data, we infer that galaxies with M_AB>-15 were present at z>5 at 95% confidence, demonstrating the key role played by very faint galaxies during reionization.
Conversion of photons into axions under the presence of a strong magnetic field can dim the radiation from magnetized astrophysical objects. Here we perform a detailed calculation aimed at quantifying the signatures of photon-axion conversion in the
spectra, light curves, and polarization of neutron stars (NSs). We take into account the energy and angle-dependence of the conversion probability and the surface thermal emission from NSs. The latter is computed from magnetized atmosphere models that include the effect of photon polarization mode conversion due to vacuum polarization. The resulting spectral models, inclusive of the general-relativistic effects of gravitational redshift and light deflection, allow us to make realistic predictions for the effects of photon to axion conversion on observed NS spectra, light curves, and polarization signals. We identify unique signatures of the conversion, such as an increase of the effective area of a hot spot as it rotates away from the observer line of sight. For a star emitting from the entire surface, the conversion produces apparent radii that are either larger or smaller (depending on axion mass and coupling strength) than the limits set by NS equations of state. For an emission region that is observed phase-on, photon-axion conversion results in an inversion of the plane of polarization with respect to the no-conversion case. While the quantitative details of the features that we identify depend on NS properties (magnetic field strength, temperature) and axion parameters, the spectral and polarization signatures induced by photon-axion conversion are distinctive enough to make NSs very interesting and promising probes of axion physics.
Hot Jupiter atmospheres exhibit fast, weakly-ionized winds. The interaction of these winds with the planetary magnetic field generates drag on the winds and leads to ohmic dissipation of the induced electric currents. We study the magnitude of ohmic
dissipation in representative, three-dimensional atmospheric circulation models of the hot Jupiter HD 209458b. We find that ohmic dissipation can reach or exceed 1% of the stellar insolation power in the deepest atmospheric layers, in models with and without dragged winds. Such power, dissipated in the deep atmosphere, appears sufficient to slow down planetary contraction and explain the typically inflated radii of hot Jupiters. This atmospheric scenario does not require a top insulating layer or radial currents that penetrate deep in the planetary interior. Circulation in the deepest atmospheric layers may actually be driven by spatially non-uniform ohmic dissipation. A consistent treatment of magnetic drag and ohmic dissipation is required to further elucidate the consequences of magnetic effects for the atmospheres and the contracting interiors of hot Jupiters.
Hot Jupiters, with atmospheric temperatures T ~ 1000 K, have residual thermal ionization levels sufficient for the interaction of the ions with the planetary magnetic field to result in a sizable magnetic drag on the (neutral) atmospheric winds. We e
valuate the magnitude of magnetic drag in a representative three-dimensional atmospheric model of the hot Jupiter HD 209458b and find that it is a plausible mechanism to limit wind speeds in this class of atmospheres. Magnetic drag has a strong geometrical dependence, both meridionally and from the day to the night side (in the upper atmosphere), which could have interesting consequences for the atmospheric flow pattern. By extension, close-in eccentric planets with transiently heated atmospheres will experience time-variable levels of magnetic drag. A robust treatment of magnetic drag in circulation models for hot atmospheres may require iterated solutions to the magnetic induction and Saha equations as the hydrodynamical flow is evolved.
While there is mounting evidence that long Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs) are associated with the collapse of massive stars, the detailed structure of their pre-supernova stage is still debatable. Particularly uncertain is the degree of mixing among shells
of different composition, and hence the role of magnetic torques and convection in transporting angular momentum. Here we show that early-time afterglow observations with the Swift satellite place constraints on the allowed GRB pre-supernova models. In particular, they argue against pre-supernova models in which different elemental shells are unmixed. These types of models would produce energy injections into the GRB engine on timescales between several hundreds of seconds to a few hours. Flaring activity has {em not} been observed in a large fraction of well-monitored long GRBs. Therefore, if the progenitors of long GRBs have common properties, then the lack of flares indicates that the massive stars which produce GRBs are mostly well mixed, as expected in low-metallicity, rapidly rotating massive stars.
We have studied the X-ray properties of ageing historical core-collapse supernovae in nearby galaxies, using archival data from Chandra, XMM-Newton and Swift. We found possible evidence of a young X-ray pulsar in SN 1968D and in few other sources, bu
t none more luminous than ~ a few 10^{37} erg/s. We compared the observational limits to the X-ray pulsar luminosity distribution with the results of Monte Carlo simulations for a range of birth parameters. We conclude that a pulsar population dominated by periods <~ 40 ms at birth is ruled out by the data.
We compute the average luminosity of X-ray flares as a function of time, for a sample of 10 long-duration gamma-ray burst afterglows. The mean luminosity, averaged over a timescale longer than the duration of the individual flares, declines as a powe
r-law in time with index ~-1.5. We elaborate on the properties of the central engine that can produce such a decline. Assuming that the engine is an accreting compact object, and for a standard conversion factor between accretion rate and jet luminosity, the switch between a neutrino-cooled thin disk and a non-cooled thick disk takes place at the transition from the prompt to the flaring phase. We discuss the implications of this coincidence under different scenarios for the powering of the GRB outflow. We also show that the interaction of the outflow with the envelope of the progenitor star cannot produce flares out of a continuous relativistic flow, and conclude that it is the dynamics of the disk or the jet-launching mechanism that generates an intrinsically unsteady outflow on timescales much longer than the dynamical timescale of the system. This is consistent with the fact that X-ray flares are observed in short-duration GRBs as well as in long-duration ones.
