The investigation of paramagnetic species (such as point defects, dopants, and impurities) in solid-state electronic devices is significant because of their effect on device performance. Conventionally, these species are detected and imaged using the
electron spin resonance (ESR) technique. In many instances, ESR is not sensitive enough to deal with miniature devices having small numbers of paramagnetic species and high spatial heterogeneity. This limitation can in principle be overcome by employing a more sensitive method called electrically-detected magnetic resonance, which is based on measuring the effect of paramagnetic species on the electric current of the device while inducing electron spin-flip transitions. However, up until now, measurement of the current of the device could not reveal the spatial heterogeneity of its paramagnetic species. We provide here, for the first time, high resolution microimages of paramagnetic species in operating solar cells obtained through electrically-detected magnetic resonance. The method is based on unique microwave pulse sequences for excitation and detection of the electrical signal under a static magnetic field and powerful pulsed magnetic field gradients that spatially encode the electrical current of the sample. The approach developed here can be widely used in the nondestructive three-dimensional inspection and characterization of paramagnetic species in a variety of electronic devices.
