In a molecular cloud dust opacity typically dominates over gas opacity, yet in the vicinities of forming stars dust is depleted, and gas is the sole provider of opacity. In the optically thin circumstellar environments the radiation temperature canno
t be assumed to be equal to the gas temperature, hence the two-temperature Planck means are necessary to calculate the radiative equilibrium. By using the two-temperature mean opacity one does obtain the proper equilibrium gas temperature in a circumstellar environment, which is in a chemical equilibrium. A careful consideration of a radiative transfer problem reveals that the equilibrium temperature solution can be degenerate in an optically thin gaseous environment. We compute mean gas opacities based on the publicly available code DFSYNTHE by Kurucz and Castelli. We performed the calculations assuming local thermodynamic equilibrium and an ideal gas equation of state. The values were derived by direct integration of the high-resolution opacity spectrum. We produced two sets of gas opacity tables: Rosseland means and two-temperature Planck means (the tables available via http://cdsweb.u-strasbg.fr/ as well as via http://www.mpia-hd.mpg.de/homes/malygin). For three metallicities [Me/H] = 0.0,+/-0.3 we covered the parameter range 3.48 <= log T_rad[K] <= 4.48 in radiation temperature, 2.8 <= log T_gas[K]} <= 6.0 in gas temperature, and -10 <= log P[dyn cm^-2] <= 6 in gas pressure. We show that in the optically thin circumstellar environment for a given stellar radiation field and local gas density there are several equilibrium gas temperatures possible. We conclude that, in general, equilibrium gas temperature cannot be determined without treating the temperature evolution.
Recently, the existence of geometrically thick dust structures in Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN) has been directly proven with the help of mid-infrared interferometry. The observations are consistent with a two-component model made up of a geometricall
y thin and warm central disk, surrounded by a colder, fluffy torus component. In an exploratory study, we investigate one possible physical mechanism, which could produce such a structure, namely the effect of stellar feedback from a young nuclear star cluster on the interstellar medium in centres of AGN. The model is realised with the help of the hydrodynamics code TRAMP. We follow the evolution of the interstellar medium by taking discrete mass loss and energy ejection due to stellar processes, as well as optically thin radiative cooling into account. In a post-processing step, we calculate observable quantities (spectral energy distributions and images) with the help of the radiative transfer code MC3D. The interplay between injection of mass, supernova explosions and radiative cooling leads to a two-component structure made up of a cold geometrically thin, but optically thick and very turbulent disk residing in the vicinity of the angular momentum barrier, surrounded by a filamentary structure. The latter consists of cold long radial filaments flowing towards the disk and a hot tenuous medium in between, which shows both inwards and outwards directed motions. This modelling is able to reproduce the range of observed neutral hydrogen column densities of a sample of Seyfert galaxies as well as the relation between them and the strength of the silicate 10 micron spectral feature. Despite being quite crude, our mean Seyfert galaxy model is even able to describe the SEDs of two intermediate type Seyfert galaxies observed with the Spitzer Space Telescope.
Centimeter and meter sized solid particles in protoplanetary disks are trapped within long lived high pressure regions, creating opportunities for collapse into planetesimals and planetary embryos. We study the accumulations in the stable Lagrangian
points of a giant planet, as well as in the Rossby vortices launched at the edges of the gap it carves. We employ the Pencil Code, tracing the solids with a large number of interacting Lagrangian particles, usually 100,000. For particles of 1 cm to 10 cm radii, gravitational collapse occurs in the Lagrangian points in less than 200 orbits. For 5 cm particles, a 2 Earth mass planet is formed. For 10 cm, the final maximum collapsed mass is around 3 Earth masses. The collapse of the 1 cm particles is indirect, following the timescale of depletion of gas from the tadpole orbits. In the edges of the gap vortices are excited, trapping preferentially particles of 30 cm radii. The rocky planet that is formed is as massive as 17 Earth masses, constituting a Super-Earth. By using multiple particle species, we find that gas drag modifies the streamlines in the tadpole region around the classical L4 and L5 points. As a result, particles of different radii have their stable points shifted to different locations. Collapse therefore takes longer and produces planets of lower mass. Three super-Earths are formed in the vortices, the most massive having 4.4 Earth masses. We conclude that a Jupiter mass planet can induce the formation of other planetary embryos in the outer edge of its gas gap. Trojan Earth mass planets are readily formed, and although not existing in the solar system, might be common in the exoplanetary zoo.
In the borders of the dead zones of protoplanetary disks, the inflow of gas produces a local density maximum that triggers the Rossby wave instability. The vortices that form are efficient in trapping solids. We aim to assess the possibility of gravi
tational collapse of the solids within the Rossby vortices. We perform global simulations of the dynamics of gas and solids in a low mass non-magnetized self-gravitating thin protoplanetary disk with the Pencil code. We use multiple particle species of radius 1, 10, 30, and 100 cm. The dead zone is modeled as a region of low viscosity. The Rossby vortices excited in the edges of the dead zone are very efficient particle traps. Within 5 orbits after their appearance, the solids achieve critical density and undergo gravitational collapse into Mars sized objects. The velocity dispersions are of the order of 10 m/s for newly formed embryos, later lowering to less than 1 m/s by drag force cooling. After 200 orbits, 38 gravitationally bound embryos were formed inside the vortices, half of them being more massive than Mars. The embryos are composed primarily of same-sized particles. We conclude that the presence of a dead zone naturally gives rise to a population of protoplanetary cores in the mass range of 0.1-0.6 Earth masses, on very short timescales.
We present global 3D MHD simulations of disks of gas and solids, aiming at developing models that can be used to study various scenarios of planet formation and planet-disk interaction in turbulent accretion disks. A second goal is to show that Carte
sian codes are comparable to cylindrical and spherical ones in handling the magnetohydrodynamics of the disk simulations, as the disk-in-a-box models presented here develop and sustain MHD turbulence. We investigate the dependence of the magnetorotational instability on disk scale height, finding evidence that the turbulence generated by the magnetorotational instability grows with thermal pressure. The turbulent stresses depend on the thermal pressure obeying a power law of 0.24+/-0.03, compatible with the value of 0.25 found in shearing box calculations. The ratio of stresses decreased with increasing temperature. We also study the dynamics of boulders in the hydromagnetic turbulence. The vertical turbulent diffusion of the embedded boulders is comparable to the turbulent viscosity of the flow. Significant overdensities arise in the solid component as boulders concentrate in high pressure regions.
