To infer information flow in any network of agents, it is important first and foremost to establish causal temporal relations between the nodes. Practical and automated methods that can infer causality are difficult to find, and the subject of ongoin
g research. While Shannon information only detects correlation, there are several information-theoretic notions of directed information that have successfully detected causality in some systems, in particular in the neuroscience community. However, recent work has shown that some directed information measures can sometimes inadequately estimate the extent of causal relations, or even fail to identify existing cause-effect relations between components of systems, especially if neurons contribute in a cryptographic manner to influence the effector neuron. Here, we test how often cryptographic logic emerges in an evolutionary process that generates artificial neural circuits for two fundamental cognitive tasks: motion detection and sound localization. We also test whether activity time-series recorded from behaving digital brains can infer information flow using the transfer entropy concept, when compared to a ground-truth model of causal influence constructed from connectivity and circuit logic. Our results suggest that transfer entropy will sometimes fail to infer causality when it exists, and sometimes suggest a causal connection when there is none. However, the extent of incorrect inference strongly depends on the cognitive task considered. These results emphasize the importance of understanding the fundamental logic processes that contribute to information flow in cognitive processing, and quantifying their relevance in any given nervous system.
A central goal of evolutionary biology is to explain the origins and distribution of diversity across life. Beyond species or genetic diversity, we also observe diversity in the circuits (genetic or otherwise) underlying complex functional traits. Ho
wever, while the theory behind the origins and maintenance of genetic and species diversity has been studied for decades, theory concerning the origin of diverse functional circuits is still in its infancy. It is not known how many different circuit structures can implement any given function, which evolutionary factors lead to different circuits, and whether the evolution of a particular circuit was due to adaptive or non-adaptive processes. Here, we use digital experimental evolution to study the diversity of neural circuits that encode motion detection in digital (artificial) brains. We find that evolution leads to an enormous diversity of potential neural architectures encoding motion detection circuits, even for circuits encoding the exact same function. Evolved circuits vary in both redundancy and complexity (as previously found in genetic circuits) suggesting that similar evolutionary principles underlie circuit formation using any substrate. We also show that a simple (designed) motion detection circuit that is optimally-adapted gains in complexity when evolved further, and that selection for mutational robustness led this gain in complexity.
Flies that walk in a covered planar arena on straight paths avoid colliding with each other, but which of the two flies stops is not random. High-throughput video observations, coupled with dedicated experiments with controlled robot flies have revea
led that flies utilize the type of optic flow on their retina as a determinant of who should stop, a strategy also used by ship captains to determine which of two ships on a collision course should throw engines in reverse. We use digital evolution to test whether this strategy evolves when collision avoidance is the sole penalty. We find that the strategy does indeed evolve in a narrow range of cost/benefit ratios, for experiments in which the regressive motion cue is error free. We speculate that these stringent conditions may not be sufficient to evolve the strategy in real flies, pointing perhaps to auxiliary costs and benefits not modeled in our study
