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Register a new userA computer program to simulate the response of SiPMs
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A Monte Carlo program which simulates the response of SiPMs is presented. Input to the program are the mean number and the time distribution of Geiger discharges from light, as well as the dark-count rate. For every primary Geiger discharge from light and dark counts in an event, correlated Geiger discharges due to prompt and delayed cross-talk and after-pulses are simulated, and a table of the amplitudes and times of all Geiger discharges in a specified time window generated. A number of different physics-based models and statistical treatments for the simulation of correlated Geiger discharges can be selected. These lists for many events together with different options for the pulse shapes of single Geiger discharges are used to simulate charge spectra, as measured by a current-integrating charge-to-digital converter, or current transients convolved with an electronics response function, as recorded by a digital oscilloscope. The program can be used to compare simulations with different assumptions to experimental data, and thus find out which models are most appropriate for a given SiPM, optimise the operating conditions and readout for a given application or test programs which are used to extract SiPM parameters from experimental data.
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We have developed a function which describes SiPM response in both small signal and highly saturated regimes. The function includes the reactivation of SiPM pixels during a single input light pulse, and results in an approximately linear increase of SiPM response in the highly saturated regime, as observed in real SiPMs. This article shows that the function can accurately describe the measured response of real SiPM devices over a wide range of signal intensities.
The Mu2e experiment at Fermilab will search for the coherent $mu to e$ conversion on aluminum atoms. The detector system consists of a straw tube tracker and a crystal calorimeter. A pre-production of 150 Silicon Photomultiplier arrays for the Mu2e calorimeter has been procured. A detailed quality assur- ance has been carried out on each SiPM for the determination of its own operation voltage, gain, dark current and PDE. The measurement of the mean-time-to-failure for a small random sample of the pro-production group has been also completed as well as the determination of the dark current increase as a function of the ioninizing and non-ioninizing dose.
The Mu2e calorimeter is composed of two disks each containing 1348 pure CsI crystals, each crystal read out by two arrays of 6x6 mm2 monolithic SiPMs. The experimental requirements have been translated in a series of technical specifications for both crystals and SiPMs. Quality assurance tests, on first crystal and then SiPM production batches, confirm the performances of preproduction samples previously assembled in a calorimeter prototype and tested with an electron beam. The production yield is sufficient to allow the construction of a calorimeter of the required quality in the expected times.
Prototype SiPMs with 4384 pixels of dimensions $15 times 15~mu $m$^2$ produced by KETEK have been irradiated with reactor neutrons to eight fluences between $10^9$ and $5times 10^{14}$ cm$^{-2}$. For temperatures between $-30~^circ $C and $+30~^circ $C capacitance-voltage, admittance-frequency, current-forward voltage, current-reverse voltage and charge-voltage measurements with and without illumination by a sub-nanosecond laser have been performed. The data have been analysed using different methods in order to extract the dependence on neutron fluence and temperature of the electrical parameters, the breakdown oltage, the activation energy for the current generation, the dark-count rate and the response to light pulses. The results from the different analysis methods are compared.
The characterisation of radiation-damaged SiPMs is a major challenge, when the average time between dark counts approaches, or even exceeds, the signal decay time. In this note a collection of formulae is presented, which have been developed and used for the analysis of current measurements for SiPMs in the dark and illuminated by an LED, before and after hadron irradiation. It is shown, how parameters like the breakdown voltage, the quenching resistance, the dark-count rate, the reduction of the photo-detection efficiency due to dark counts and the Geiger discharge probability can be estimated from current-voltage measurements. The only additional SiPM parameters needed are the pixel capacitance, the number of pixels and the correlated noise. Central to the method is the concept of the pixel occupancy, the probability of a Geiger discharge in a single pixel during a given time interval, for which the decay time of the SiPM signal has been assumed. As an illustration the formulae are used to characterise a KETEK SiPM before and after irradiation by a fluence of 5E13 cm$^{-2}$ of reactor neutrons for temperatures of -30{deg}C and +20{deg}C, where dark-count rates exceeding 1E11 Hz are observed.
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