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Register a new userPhysical structure of the envelopes of intermediate-mass protostars
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Context: Intermediate mass protostars provide a bridge between low- and high-mass protostars. Furthermore, they are an important component of the UV interstellar radiation field. Despite their relevance, little is known about their formation process. Aims: We present a systematic study of the physical structure of five intermediate mass, candidate Class 0 protostars. Our two goals are to shed light on the first phase of intermediate mass star formation and to compare these protostars with low- and high-mass sources. Methods: We derived the dust and gas temperature and density profiles of the sample. We analysed all existing continuum data on each source and modelled the resulting SED with the 1D radiative transfer code DUSTY. The gas temperature was then predicted by means of a modified version of the code CHT96. Results: We found that the density profiles of five out of six studied intermediate mass envelopes are consistent with the predictions of the inside-out collapse theory.We compared several physical parameters, like the power law index of the density profile, the size, the mass, the average density, the density at 1000 AU and the density at 10 K of the envelopes of low-, intermediate, and high-mass protostars. When considering these various physical parameters, the transition between the three groups appears smooth, suggesting that the formation processes and triggers do not substantially differ.
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Intermediate mass protostars, the bridge between the very common solar-like protostars and the more massive, but rarer, O and B stars, can only be studied at high physical spatial resolutions in a handful of clouds. In this paper we present and analyze the continuum results from an observing campaign at the Submillimeter Array targeting two well-studied intermediate mass protostars in Orion, NGC 2071 and L1641 S3 MMS 1. The extended SMA (eSMA) probes structure at angular resolutions up to 0.2, revealing protostellar disks on scales of 200 AU. Continuum flux measurements on these scales indicate that a significant amount of mass, a few tens of M{odot}, are present. Envelope, stellar, and disk masses are derived using both compact, extended and eSMA configurations and compared against SED-fitting models. We hypothesize that fragmentation into three components occurred within NGC 2071 at an early time, when the envelopes were less than 10% of their current masses, e.g. < 0.5 M{odot}. No fragmentation occurred for L1641 S3 MMS 1. For NGC 2071 evidence is given that the bulk of the envelope material currently around each source was accreted after the initial fragmentation. In addition, about 30% of the total core mass is not yet associated to one of the three sources. A global accretion model is favored and a potential accretion history of NGC 2071 is presented. It is shown that the relatively low level of fragmentation in NGC 2071 was stifled compared to the expected fragmentation from a Jeans argument.
Observations of dense molecular gas lie at the basis of our understanding of the density and temperature structure of protostellar envelopes and molecular outflows. We aim to characterize the properties of the protostellar envelope, molecular outflow and surrounding cloud, through observations of high excitation molecular lines within a sample of 16 southern sources presumed to be embedded YSOs. Observations of submillimeter lines of CO, HCO+ and their isotopologues, both single spectra and small maps were taken with the FLASH and APEX-2a instruments mounted on APEX to trace the gas around the sources. The HARP-B instrument on the JCMT was used to map IRAS 15398-3359 in these lines. HCO+ mapping probes the presence of dense centrally condensed gas, a characteristic of protostellar envelopes. The rare isotopologues C18O and H13CO+ are also included to determine the optical depth, column density, and source velocity. The combination of multiple CO transitions, such as 3-2, 4-3 and 7-6, allows to constrain outflow properties, in particular the temperature. Archival submillimeter continuum data are used to determine envelope masses. Eleven of the sixteen sources have associated warm and/or dense quiescent as characteristic of protostellar envelopes, or an associated outflow. Using the strength and degree of concentration of the HCO+ 4-3 and CO 4-3 lines as a diagnostic, five sources classified as Class I based on their spectral energy distributions are found not to be embedded YSOs. The C18O 3-2 lines show that for none of the sources, foreground cloud layers are present. Strong molecular outflows are found around six sources, .. (continued in paper)
Intermediate-mass young stellar objects (YSOs) provide a link to understand how feedback from shocks and UV radiation scales from low to high-mass star forming regions. Aims: Our aim is to analyze excitation of CO and H$_2$O in deeply-embedded intermediate-mass YSOs and compare with low-mass and high-mass YSOs. Methods: Herschel/PACS spectral maps are analyzed for 6 YSOs with bolometric luminosities of $L_mathrm{bol}sim10^2 - 10^3$ $L_odot$. The maps cover spatial scales of $sim 10^4$ AU in several CO and H$_2$O lines located in the $sim55-210$ $mu$m range. Results: Rotational diagrams of CO show two temperature components at $T_mathrm{rot}sim320$ K and $T_mathrm{rot}sim700-800$ K, comparable to low- and high-mass protostars probed at similar spatial scales. The diagrams for H$_2$O show a single component at $T_mathrm{rot}sim130$ K, as seen in low-mass protostars, and about $100$ K lower than in high-mass protostars. Since the uncertainties in $T_mathrm{rot}$ are of the same order as the difference between the intermediate and high-mass protostars, we cannot conclude whether the change in rotational temperature occurs at a specific luminosity, or whether the change is more gradual from low- to high-mass YSOs. Conclusions: Molecular excitation in intermediate-mass protostars is comparable to the central $10^{3}$ AU of low-mass protostars and consistent within the uncertainties with the high-mass protostars probed at $3cdot10^{3}$ AU scales, suggesting similar shock conditions in all those sources.
We report the second complete molecular line data release from the {em Census of High- and Medium-mass Protostars} (CHaMP), a large-scale, unbiased, uniform mapping survey at sub-parsec resolution, of mm-wave line emission from 303 massive, dense molecular clumps in the Milky Way. This release is for all $^{12}$CO $J$=1$rightarrow$0 emission associated with the dense gas, the first from Phase II of the survey, which includes $^{12}$CO, $^{13}$CO, and C$^{18}$O. The observed clump emission traced by both $^{12}$CO and HCO$^+$ (from Phase I) shows very similar morphology, indicating that, for dense molecular clouds and complexes of all sizes, parsec-scale clumps contain $Xi$ ~ 75% of the mass, while only 25% of the mass lies in extended (>~ 10 pc) or low density components in these same areas. The mass fraction of all gas above a density 10$^9$ m$^{-3}$ is $xi_9$ >~ 50%. This suggests that parsec-scale clumps may be the basic building blocks of the molecular ISM, rather than the standard GMC concept. Using $^{12}$CO emission, we derive physical properties of these clumps in their entirety, and compare them to properties from HCO$^+$, tracing their denser interiors. We compare the standard X-factor converting $I_{CO}$ to $N_{H_2}$ with alternative
We have surveyed 84 Class 0, Class I, and flat-spectrum protostars in mid-infrared [Si II], [Fe II] and [S I] line emission, and 11 of these in far-infrared [O I] emission. We use the results to derive their mass outflow rates. Thereby we observe a strong correlation of mass outflow rates with bolometric luminosity, and with the inferred mass accretion rates of the central objects, which continues through the Class 0 range the trend observed in Class II young stellar objects. Along this trend from large to small mass-flow rates, the different classes of young stellar objects lie in the sequence Class 0 -- Class I/flat-spectrum -- Class II, indicating that the trend is an evolutionary sequence in which mass outflow and accretion rates decrease together with increasing age, while maintaining rough proportionality. The survey results include two which are key tests of magnetocentrifugal outflow-acceleration mechanisms: the distribution of the outflow/accretion branching ratio b, and limits on the distribution of outflow speeds. Neither rule out any of the three leading outflow-acceleration, angular-momentum-ejection mechanisms, but they provide some evidence that disk winds and accretion-powered stellar winds (APSWs) operate in many protostars. An upper edge observed in the branching-ratio distribution is consistent with the upper bound of b = 0.6 found in models of APSWs, and a large fraction (0.31) of the sample have branching ratio sufficiently small that only disk winds, launched on scales as large as several AU, have been demonstrated to account for them.
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