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Register a new userWhy the Internet is so small?
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Added by
Shi Zhou Dr.
Publication date
2010
fields
Informatics Engineering
and research's language is
English
Authors
Shi Zhou
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During the last three decades the Internet has experienced fascinating evolution, both exponential growth in traffic and rapid expansion in topology. The size of the Internet becomes enormous, yet the network is very `small in the sense that it is extremely efficient to route data packets across the global Internet. This paper provides a brief review on three fundamental properties of the Internet topology at the autonomous systems (AS) level. Firstly the Internet has a power-law degree distribution, which means the majority of nodes on the Internet AS graph have small numbers of links, whereas a few nodes have very large numbers of links. Secondly the Internet exhibits a property called disassortative mixing, which means poorly-connected nodes tend to link with well-connected nodes, and vice versa. Thirdly the best-connected nodes, or the rich nodes, are tightly interconnected with each other forming a rich-club. We explain that it is these structural properties that make the global Internet so small.
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Ferroelectrics are attractive candidate materials for environmentally friendly solid state refrigeration free of greenhouse gases. Their thermal response upon variations of external electric fields is largest in the vicinity of their phase transitions, which may occur near room temperature. The magnitude of the effect, however, is too small for useful cooling applications even when they are driven close to dielectric breakdown. Insight from microscopic theory is therefore needed to characterize materials and provide guiding principles to search for new ones with enhanced electrocaloric performance. Here, we derive from well-known microscopic models of ferroelectricity meaningful figures of merit which provide insight into the relation between the strength of the effect and the characteristic interactions of ferroelectrics such as dipole forces. We find that the long range nature of these interactions results in a small effect. A strategy is proposed to make it larger by shortening the correlation lengths of fluctuations of polarization.
With no free parameter (except the string scale $M_S$), dynamical flux compactification in Type IIB string theory determines both the cosmological constant (vacuum energy density) $Lambda$ and the Planck mass $M_P$ in terms of $M_S$, thus yielding their relation. Following elementary probability theory, we find that a good fraction of the meta-stable de Sitter vacua in the cosmic string theory landscape tend to have an exponentially small cosmological constant $Lambda$ compared to either the string scale $M_S$ or the Planck scale $M_P$, i.e., $Lambda ll M_S^4 ll M_P^4$. Here we illustrate the basic stringy ideas with a simple scalar field $phi^3$ (or $phi^4$) model coupled with fluxes to show how this may happen and how the usual radiative instability problem is bypassed (since there are no parameters to be fine-tuned). These low lying semi-classical de Sitter vacua tend to be accompanied by light scalar bosons/axions, so the Higgs boson mass hierarchy problem may be ameliorated as well.
Homologous recombination is an important operator in the evolution of biological organisms. However, there is still no clear, generally accepted understanding of why it exists and under what circumstances it is useful. In this paper we consider its utility in the context of an infinite population haploid model with selection and homologous recombination. We define utility in terms of two metrics - the increase in frequency of fit genotypes, and the increase in average population fitness, relative to those associated with selection only. Explicitly, we exhaustively explore the eight-dimensional parameter space of a two-locus two-allele system, showing, as a function of the landscape and the initial population, that recombination is beneficial in terms of our metrics in two distinct regimes: a landscape independent regime - the search regime - where recombination aids in the search for a fit genotype that is absent or at low frequency in the population; and the modular regime, associated with quasi-additive fitness landscapes with low epistasis, where recombination allows for the juxtaposition of fit modules or Building Blocks. Thus, we conclude that the ubiquity and utility of recombination is intimately associated with the existence of modularity in biological fitness landscapes.
Order flow in equity markets is remarkably persistent in the sense that order signs (to buy or sell) are positively autocorrelated out to time lags of tens of thousands of orders, corresponding to many days. Two possible explanations are herding, corresponding to positive correlation in the behavior of different investors, or order splitting, corresponding to positive autocorrelation in the behavior of single investors. We investigate this using order flow data from the London Stock Exchange for which we have membership identifiers. By formulating models for herding and order splitting, as well as models for brokerage choice, we are able to overcome the distortion introduced by brokerage. On timescales of less than a few hours the persistence of order flow is overwhelmingly due to splitting rather than herding. We also study the properties of brokerage order flow and show that it is remarkably consistent both cross-sectionally and longitudinally.
After 50 years, the Internet is still defined as a collection of interconnected networks. Yet desires of countries for their own internet (Internet secession?), country-level firewalling, and persistent peering disputes all challenge the idea of a single set of interconnected networks. We show that the Internet today has peninsulas of persistent, partial connectivity, and that some outages cause islands where the Internet at the site is up, but partitioned from the main Internet. We propose a new definition of the Internet defining a single, global network while helping us to reason about peninsulas and islands and their relationship to Internet outages. We provide algorithms to detect peninsulas and islands, find that peninsulas are more common than outages, with thousands of /24s IPv4 blocks that are part of peninsulas lasting a month or more. Root causes of most peninsula events (45%) are transient routing problems. However, a few long-lived peninsulas events (7%) account for 90% of all peninsula time, and they suggest root causes in country- or AS-level policy choices. We also show that islands occur. Our definition shows that no single country can unilaterally claim to be the Internet, and helps clarify the spectrum from partial reachability to outages in prior work.
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