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We study the computational complexity of universality and inclusion problems for unambiguous finite automata and context-free grammars. We observe that several such problems can be reduced to the universality problem for unambiguous context-free grammars. The latter problem has long been known to be decidable and we propose a PSPACE algorithm that works by reduction to the zeroness problem of recurrence equations with convolution. We are not aware of any non-trivial complexity lower bounds. However, we show that computing the coin-flip measure of an unambiguous context-free language, a quantitative generalisation of universality, is hard for the long-standing open problem SQRTSUM.
Context-Free Grammars (CFGs) and Parsing Expression Grammars (PEGs) have several similarities and a few differences in both their syntax and semantics, but they are usually presented through formalisms that hinder a proper comparison. In this paper w
This paper proposes the use of ``pattern-based context-free grammars as a basis for building machine translation (MT) systems, which are now being adopted as personal tools by a broad range of users in the cyberspace society. We discuss major require
We consider the cyclic closure of a language, and its generalisation to the operators $C^k$ introduced by Brandstadt. We prove that the cyclic closure of an indexed language is indexed, and that if $L$ is a context-free language then $C^k(L)$ is indexed.
Higher-order grammars are extensions of regular and context-free grammars, where non-terminals may take parameters. They have been extensively studied in 1980s, and restudied recently in the context of model checking and program verification. We show
We present two structural results concerning longest common prefixes of non-empty languages. First, we show that the longest common prefix of the language generated by a context-free grammar of size $N$ equals the longest common prefix of the same gr