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Register a new userMeasuring the Mass of Missing Baryons in the Halo of Andromeda Galaxy with Gamma-Ray Observations
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One of the biggest mysteries in the modern cosmology and galaxy formation is the hideout of the missing baryons. The leading theory of galaxy formation predicts that a huge amount of baryons resides around galaxies extending out to their virial radii in the form of diffuse and hot gas of $10^6-10^7,$K, which is also known as the major component of the circumgalactic medium (CGM). Studies by various groups via different techniques, however, have not reached a consensus on the role of CGM in accounting for the missing baryons, with the estimated contribution ranging from a minor fraction to enclosing the baryon budget of the galaxy. In this work we attempt to measure the mass of missing baryons in CGM with a novel method based on the gamma-ray observations of the extended halo of the Andromeda Galaxy. Since cosmic-ray particles that are generated inside the galaxy will eventually escape to the CGM, they will produce gamma-ray emission via the proton-proton collision with CGM. Different from some traditional measurements which are sensitive only to gas in certain specific temperature range, the hadronic gamma-ray flux is sensitive to baryonic gases in all phases and does not rely on the metallicity in the halo. Our result suggests that the total baryon mass contained within the virial radius is less than $(1.4-5)times 10^{10}M_odot$ according to the gamma-ray intensity obtained with a model-dependent analysis. It implies that the CGM of Andromeda Galaxy may not account for more than $30%$ of the missing baryons, but the result is subject to uncertainties from the gamma-ray intensity upper limit, diffusion coefficient of the CRs in the halo as well as the stellar mass and dark matter halo mass of the galaxy. This method will become more constraining provided better understandings on these issues and more sensitive gamma-ray telescopes in the future.
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We analyze about 12 years of Fermi-LAT data in the direction of the Andromeda galaxy (M31). We robustly characterize its spectral and morphological properties against systematic uncertainties related to the modeling of the Galactic diffuse emission. We perform this work by adapting and exploiting the potential of the skyFACT adaptive template fitting algorithm. We reconstruct the gamma-ray image of M31 in a template-independent way, and we show that flat spatial models are preferred by data, indicating an extension of the $gamma$-ray emission of about 0.3-0.4 degree for the bulge of M31. This study also suggests that a second component, extending to at least 1 degree, contributes to the observed total emission. We quantify systematic uncertainties related to mis-modeling of Galactic foreground emission at the level of 2.9%.
We present predictions for galactic halo baryon fractions from cosmological hydrodynamic simulations with a well-constrained model for galactic outflows. Without outflows, halos contain roughly the cosmic fraction of baryons, slightly lowered at high masses owing to pressure support from hot gas. The star formation efficiency is large and increases monotonically to low masses, in disagreement with data. With outflows, the baryon fraction is increasingly suppressed in halos to lower masses. A Milky Way-sized halo at z=0 has about 60% of the cosmic fraction of baryons, so missing halo baryons have largely been evacuated, rather than existing in some hidden form. Large halos (>10^13 Mo) contain 85% of their cosmic share of baryons, which explains the mild missing baryon problem seen in clusters. By comparing results at z=3 and z=0, we show that most of the baryon removal occurs at early epochs in larger halos, while smaller halos lose baryons more recently. Star formation efficiency is maximized in halos of ~10^13 Mo, dropping significantly to lower masses, which helps reconcile the sub-L* slope of the observed stellar and halo mass functions. These trends are predominantly driven by differential wind recycling, namely, that wind material takes longer to return to low-mass galaxies than high-mass galaxies. The hot gas content of halos is mostly unaffected by outflows, showing that outflows tend to blow holes and escape rather than deposit their energy into halo gas.
Various studies have implied the existence of a gaseous halo around the Galaxy extending out to 100 kpc. Galactic cosmic rays (CRs) that propagate to the halo, either by diffusion or by convection with the possibly existing large-scale Galactic wind, can interact with the gas therein and produce gamma-rays via proton-proton collision. We calculate the cosmic ray distribution in the halo and the gamma-ray flux, and explore the dependence of the result on model parameters such as diffusion coefficient, CR luminosity, CR spectral index. We find that the current measurement of isotropic gamma-ray background at $lesssim$TeV with Fermi Large Area Telescope already approaches a level that can provide interesting constraints on the properties of Galactic cosmic ray (e.g., with CR luminosity $L_{CR}leq 10^{41}$erg/s). We also discuss the possibilities of the Fermi bubble and IceCube neutrinos originating from the proton-proton collision between cosmic rays and gas in the halo, as well as the implication of our results for the baryon budget of the hot circumgalactic medium of our Galaxy. Given that the isotropic gamma-ray background is likely to be dominated by unresolved extragalactic sources, future telescopes may extract more individual sources from the IGRB, and hence put even more stringent restriction on the relevant quantities (such as Galactic cosmic ray luminosity and baryon budget in the halo) in the presence of a turbulent halo that we consider.
Recently, the evidence for gamma-ray emission has been found in the $Fermi$-LAT observation for the outer halo of Andromeda galaxy (M31). The dark matter (DM) annihilation offers a possible explanation on the gamma-ray radiation. In this work, we focus on the dark matter annihilation within minispikes around intermediate-mass black holes (IMBHs) with masses ranging from $100~mathrm{M_odot}$ to $10^6~mathrm{M_odot}$. When the thermal annihilation relic cross section $leftlangle sigma v rightrangle = 3 times 10^{-26}~mathrm {cm} ^{3};mathrm {s} ^{-1}$ is adopted, we conduct an investigation on the population of IMBHs in the spherical halo area of M31. We find that there could be more than 65 IMBHs with masses of $ 100~ mathrm{M_odot}$ surrounded by the DM minispikes as the remnants of Population III stars in the M31 spherical halo, and it is almost impossible for the existence of minspikes around IMBHs with masses above $10^4~ mathrm{M_odot}$ which could be formed by the collapse of primordial cold gas, for both dark matter annihilation channels $bbar{b}$ and $tau^{+}tau^{-}$. The properties of dark matter have been further explored with the simulation of these two scenarios for IMBHs formation.
The relation between galaxies and dark matter halos is of vital importance for evaluating theoretical predictions of structure formation and galaxy formation physics. We show that the widely used method of abundance matching based on dark matter only simulations fails at the low mass end because two of its underlying assumptions are broken: only a small fraction of low mass (below 10^9.5 solar masses) halos host a visible galaxy, and halos grow at a lower rate due to the effect of baryons. In this regime, reliance on dark matter only simulations for abundance matching is neither accurate nor self-consistent. We find that the reported discrepancy between observational estimates of the halo masses of dwarf galaxies and the values predicted by abundance matching does not point to a failure of LCDM, but simply to a failure to account for baryonic effects. Our results also imply that the Local Group contains only a few hundred observable galaxies in contrast with the thousands of faint dwarfs that abundance matching would suggest. We show how relations derived from abundance matching can be corrected, so that they can be used self-consistently to calibrate models of galaxy formation.
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