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Register a new userRetinal Ganglion Cell Stimulation with an Optically Powered Retinal Prosthesis
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William Lemaire
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Objective. Clinical trials previously demonstrated the spectacular capacity to elicit visual percepts in blind patients affected with retinal diseases by electrically stimulating the remaining neurons on the retina. However, these implants restored very limited visual acuity and required transcutaneous cables traversing the eyeball, leading to reduced reliability and complex surgery with high postoperative infection risks. Approach. To overcome the limitations imposed by cables, a retinal implant architecture in which near-infrared illumination carries both power and data through the pupil is presented. A high efficiency multi-junction photovoltaic cell transduces the optical power to a CMOS stimulator capable of delivering flexible interleaved sequential stimulation through a diamond microelectrode array. To demonstrate the capacity to elicit a neural response with this approach while complying with the optical irradiance safety limit at the pupil, fluorescence imaging with a calcium indicator is used on a degenerate rat retina. Main results. The power delivered by the laser at safe irradiance of 4 mW/mm2 is shown to be sufficient to both power the stimulator ASIC and elicit a response in retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), with the ability to generate of up to 35 000 pulses per second at the average stimulation threshold. Significance. This confirms the feasibility of wirelessly generating a response in RGCs with a digital stimulation controller that can deliver complex multipolar stimulation patterns at high repetition rates.
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Simple RGC consists of a collection of ImageJ plugins to assist researchers investigating retinal ganglion cell (RGC) injury models in addition to helping assess the effectiveness of treatments. The first plugin named RGC Counter accurately calculates the total number of RGCs from retinal wholemount images. The second plugin named RGC Transduction measures the co-localisation between two channels making it possible to determine the transduction efficiencies of viral vectors and transgene expression levels. The third plugin named RGC Batch is a batch image processor to deliver fast analysis of large groups of microscope images. These ImageJ plugins make analysis of RGCs in retinal wholemounts easy, quick, consistent, and less prone to unconscious bias by the investigator. The plugins are freely available from the ImageJ update site https://sites.imagej.net/Sonjoonho/.
Thalamic relay cells fire action potentials that transmit information from retina to cortex. The amount of information that spike trains encode is usually estimated from the precision of spike timing with respect to the stimulus. Sensory input, however, is only one factor that influences neural activity. For example, intrinsic dynamics, such as oscillations of networks of neurons, also modulate firing pattern. Here, we asked if retinal oscillations might help to convey information to neurons downstream. Specifically, we made whole-cell recordings from relay cells to reveal retinal inputs (EPSPs) and thalamic outputs (spikes) and analyzed these events with information theory. Our results show that thalamic spike trains operate as two multiplexed channels. One channel, which occupies a low frequency band (<30 Hz), is encoded by average firing rate with respect to the stimulus and carries information about local changes in the image over time. The other operates in the gamma frequency band (40-80 Hz) and is encoded by spike time relative to the retinal oscillations. Because these oscillations involve extensive areas of the retina, it is likely that the second channel transmits information about global features of the visual scene. At times, the second channel conveyed even more information than the first.
A central challenge in neuroscience is to understand neural computations and circuit mechanisms that underlie the encoding of ethologically relevant, natural stimuli. In multilayered neural circuits, nonlinear processes such as synaptic transmission and spiking dynamics present a significant obstacle to the creation of accurate computational models of responses to natural stimuli. Here we demonstrate that deep convolutional neural networks (CNNs) capture retinal responses to natural scenes nearly to within the variability of a cells response, and are markedly more accurate than linear-nonlinear (LN) models and Generalized Linear Models (GLMs). Moreover, we find two additional surprising properties of CNNs: they are less susceptible to overfitting than their LN counterparts when trained on small amounts of data, and generalize better when tested on stimuli drawn from a different distribution (e.g. between natural scenes and white noise). Examination of trained CNNs reveals several properties. First, a richer set of feature maps is necessary for predicting the responses to natural scenes compared to white noise. Second, temporally precise responses to slowly varying inputs originate from feedforward inhibition, similar to known retinal mechanisms. Third, the injection of latent noise sources in intermediate layers enables our model to capture the sub-Poisson spiking variability observed in retinal ganglion cells. Fourth, augmenting our CNNs with recurrent lateral connections enables them to capture contrast adaptation as an emergent property of accurately describing retinal responses to natural scenes. These methods can be readily generalized to other sensory modalities and stimulus ensembles. Overall, this work demonstrates that CNNs not only accurately capture sensory circuit responses to natural scenes, but also yield information about the circuits internal structure and function.
The ability of the organism to distinguish between various stimuli is limited by the structure and noise in the population code of its sensory neurons. Here we infer a distance measure on the stimulus space directly from the recorded activity of 100 neurons in the salamander retina. In contrast to previously used measures of stimulus similarity, this neural metric tells us how distinguishable a pair of stimulus clips is to the retina, given the noise in the neural population response. We show that the retinal distance strongly deviates from Euclidean, or any static metric, yet has a simple structure: we identify the stimulus features that the neural population is jointly sensitive to, and show the SVM-like kernel function relating the stimulus and neural response spaces. We show that the non-Euclidean nature of the retinal distance has important consequences for neural decoding.
Adaptation in the retina is thought to optimize the encoding of natural light signals into sequences of spikes sent to the brain. However, adaptation also entails computational costs: adaptive code is intrinsically ambiguous, because output symbols cannot be trivially mapped back to the stimuli without the knowledge of the adaptive state of the encoding neuron. It is thus important to learn which statistical changes in the input do, and which do not, invoke adaptive responses, and ask about the reasons for potential limits to adaptation. We measured the ganglion cell responses in the tiger salamander retina to controlled changes in the second (contrast), third (skew) and fourth (kurtosis) moments of the light intensity distribution of spatially uniform temporally independent stimuli. The skew and kurtosis of the stimuli were chosen to cover the range observed in natural scenes. We quantified adaptation in ganglion cells by studying two-dimensional linear-nonlinear models that capture well the retinal encoding properties across all stimuli. We found that the retinal ganglion cells adapt to contrast, but exhibit remarkably invariant behavior to changes in higher-order statistics. Finally, by theoretically analyzing optimal coding in LN-type models, we showed that the neural code can maintain a high information rate without dynamic adaptation despite changes in stimulus skew and kurtosis.
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