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Register a new userSynthetic observations of deuterated molecules in massive prestellar cores
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Young massive stars are usually found embedded in dense massive molecular clumps and are known for being highly obscured and distant. During their formation process, deuteration is regarded as a potentially good indicator of the very early formation stages. In this work, we test the observability of the ground-state transition of ortho-H$_2$D$^+$ $J_{rm {K_a, K_c}} = 1_{10}$-$1_{11} $ by performing interferometric and single-dish synthetic observations using magneto-hydrodynamic simulations of high-mass collapsing molecular cores, including deuteration chemistry. We studied different evolutionary times and source distances (from 1 to 7 kpc) to estimate the information loss when comparing the column densities inferred from the synthetic observations to the column densities in the model. We mimicked single-dish observations considering an APEX-like beam and interferometric observations using CASA and assuming the most compact configuration for the ALMA antennas. We found that, for centrally concentrated density distributions, the column densities are underestimated by about 51% in the case of high-resolution ALMA observations ($leqslant$1) and up to 90% for APEX observations (17). Interferometers retrieve values closer to the real ones, however, their finite spatial sampling results in the loss of contribution from large-scale structures due to the lack of short baselines. We conclude that, the emission of o-H$_2$D$^+$ in distant massive dense cores is faint and would require from $sim$1 to $sim$7 hours of observation at distances of 1 and 7 kpc, respectively, to achieve a 14$sigma$ detection in the best case scenario. Additionally, the column densities derived from such observations will certainly be affected by beam dilution in the case of single-dishes and spatial filtering in the case of interferometers.
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The CS molecule is known to be absorbed onto dust in the cold and dense conditions, causing it to get significantly depleted in the central region of cores. This study is aimed to investigate the depletion of the CS molecule using the optically thin C$^{34}$S molecular line observations. We mapped five prestellar cores, L1544, L1552, L1689B, L694-2, and L1197 using two molecular lines, C$^{34}$S $(J=2-1)$ and N$_2$H$^+$ $(J=1-0)$ with the NRO 45-m telescope, doubling the number of cores where the CS depletion was probed using C$^{34}$S. In most of our targets, the distribution of C$^{34}$S emission shows features that suggest that the CS molecule is generally depleted in the center of the prestellar cores. The radial profile of the CS abundance with respect to H$_2$ directly measured from the CS emission and the Herschel dust emission indicates that the CS molecule is depleted by a factor of $sim$3 toward the central regions of the cores with respect to their outer regions. The degree of the depletion is found to be even more enhanced by an order of magnitude when the contaminating effect introduced by the presence of CS molecules in the surrounding envelope that lie along the line-of-sight is removed. Except for L1197 which is classified as relatively the least evolved core in our targets based on its observed physical parameters, we found that the remaining four prestellar cores are suffering from significant CS depletion at their central region regardless of the relative difference in their evolutionary status.
Extremely large deuteration of several molecules has been observed towards prestellar cores and low-mass protostars for a decade. New observations performed towards low-mass protostars suggest that water presents a lower deuteration in the warm inner gas than in the cold external envelope. We coupled a gas-grain astrochemical model with a one-dimension model of collapsing core to properly follow the formation and the deuteration of interstellar ices as well as their subsequent evaporation in the low-mass protostellar envelopes with the aim of interpreting the spatial and temporal evolutions of their deuteration. The astrochemical model follows the formation and the evaporation of ices with a multilayer approach and also includes a state-of-the-art deuterated chemical network by taking the spin states of H$_2$ and light ions into account. Because of their slow formation, interstellar ices are chemically heterogeneous and show an increase of their deuterium fractionation towards the surface. The differentiation of the deuteration in ices induces an evolution of the deuteration within protostellar envelopes. The warm inner region is poorly deuterated because it includes the whole molecular content of ices while the deuteration predicted in the cold external envelope scales with the highly deuterated surface of ices. We are able to reproduce the observed evolution of water deuteration within protostellar envelopes but we are still unable to predict the super-high deuteration observed for formaldehyde and methanol. Finally, the extension of this study to the deuteration of complex organics (COMs), important for the prebiotic chemistry, shows a good agreement with the observations, suggesting that we can use the deuteration to retrace their mechanisms and their moments of formation.
We present the results of chemical modeling of complex organic molecules (COMs) under conditions typical for prestellar cores. We utilize an advanced gas-grain astrochemical model with updated gas-phase chemistry, with a multilayer approach to ice-surface chemistry and an up-to-date treatment of reactive desorption based on recent experiments of Minissale et al. (2016). With the chemical model, radial profiles of molecules including COMs are calculated for the case of the prototypical prestellar core L1544 at the timescales when the modeled depletion factor of CO becomes equal to that observed. We find that COMs can be formed efficiently in L1544 up to the fractional abundances of 10(-10) wrt. total hydrogen nuclei. Abundances of many COMs such as CH3OCH3, HCOOCH3, and others peak at similar radial distances of ~2000-4000 AU. Gas-phase abundances of COMs depend on the efficiency of reactive desorption, which in turn depends on the composition of the outer monolayers of icy mantles. In prestellar cores, the outer monolayers of mantles likely include large fractions of CO and its hydrogenation products, which may increase the efficiency of reactive desorption according to Minissale et al. (2016), and makes the formation of COMs efficient under conditions typical for prestellar cores, although this assumption is yet to be confirmed experimentally. The hydroxyl radical (OH) appears to play an important role in gas-phase chemistry of COMs, which makes it deserving further detailed studies.
Young massive stars are usually found embedded in dense and massive molecular clumps and are known for being highly obscured and distant. During their formation process, deuteration is regarded as a potentially good indicator of the formation stage. Therefore, proper observations of such deuterated molecules are crucial, but still, hard to perform. In this work, we test the observability of the transition o-H$_2$D$^+(1_{10}$-$1_{11})$, using a synthetic source, to understand how the physical characteristics are reflected in observations through interferometers and single-dish telescopes. In order to perform such tests, we post-processed a magneto-hydrodynamic simulation of a collapsing magnetized core using the radiative transfer code POLARIS. Using the resulting intensity distributions as input, we performed single-dish (APEX) and interferometric (ALMA) synthetic observations at different evolutionary times, always mimicking realistic configurations. Finally, column densities were derived to compare our simulations with real observations previously performed. Our derivations for o-H$_2$D$^+$ are in agreement with values reported in the literature, in the range of 10$^{!10-11}$cm$^{!-2}$ and 10$^{!12-13}$cm$^{!-2}$ for single-dish and interferometric measurements, respectively.
We study the abundance of CCH in prestellar cores both because of its role in the chemistry and because it is a potential probe of the magnetic field. We also consider the non-LTE behaviour of the N=1-0 and N=2-1 transitions of CCH and improve current estimates of the spectroscopic constants of CCH. We used the IRAM 30m radiotelescope to map the N=1-0 and N=2-1 transitions of CCH towards the prestellar cores L1498 and CB246. Towards CB246, we also mapped the 1.3 mm dust emission, the J=1-0 transition of N2H+ and the J=2-1 transition of C18O. We used a Monte Carlo radiative transfer program to analyse the CCH observations of L1498. We derived the distribution of CCH column densities and compared with the H2 column densities inferred from dust emission. We find that while non-LTE intensity ratios of different components of the N=1-0 and N=2-1 lines are present, they are of minor importance and do not impede CCH column density determinations based upon LTE analysis. Moreover, the comparison of our Monte-Carlo calculations with observations suggest that the non-LTE deviations can be qualitatively understood. For L1498, our observations in conjunction with the Monte Carlo code imply a CCH depletion hole of radius 9 x 10^{16} cm similar to that found for other C-containing species. We briefly discuss the significance of the observed CCH abundance distribution. Finally, we used our observations to provide improved estimates for the rest frequencies of all six components of the CCH(1-0) line and seven components of CCH(2-1). Based on these results, we compute improved spectroscopic constants for CCH. We also give a brief discussion of the prospects for measuring magnetic field strengths using CCH.
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