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Register a new userAsteroid belt survival through stellar evolution: dependence on the stellar mass
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Polluted white dwarfs are generally accreting terrestrial-like material that may originate from a debris belt like the asteroid belt in the solar system. The fraction of white dwarfs that are polluted drops off significantly for white dwarfs with masses $M_{rm WD}gtrsim 0.8,rm M_odot$. This implies that asteroid belts and planetary systems around main-sequence stars with mass $M_{rm MS}gtrsim 3,rm M_odot$ may not form because of the intense radiation from the star. This is in agreement with current debris disc and exoplanet observations. The fraction of white dwarfs that show pollution also drops off significantly for low mass white dwarfs $(M_{rm WD}lesssim 0.55,rm M_odot)$. However, the low-mass white dwarfs that do show pollution are not currently accreting but have accreted in the past. We suggest that asteroid belts around main sequence stars with masses $M_{rm MS}lesssim 2,rm M_odot$ are not likely to survive the stellar evolution process. The destruction likely occurs during the AGB phase and could be the result of interactions of the asteroids with the stellar wind, the high radiation or, for the lowest mass stars that have an unusually close-in asteroid belt, scattering during the tidal orbital decay of the inner planetary system.
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The asteroid belt was dynamically shaped during and after planet formation. Despite representing a broad ring of stable orbits, the belt contains less than one one-thousandth of an Earth mass. The asteroid orbits are dynamically excited with a wide range in eccentricity and inclination and their compositions are diverse, with a general trend toward dry objects in the inner belt and more water-rich objects in the outer belt. Here we review models of the asteroid belts origins and dynamical history. The classical view is that the belt was born with several Earth masses in planetesimals, then strongly depleted. However, it is possible that very few planetesimals ever formed in the asteroid region and that the belts story is one of implantation rather than depletion. A number of processes may have implanted asteroids from different regions of the Solar System, dynamically removed them, and excited their orbits. During the gaseous disk phase these include the effects of giant planet growth and migration and sweeping secular resonances. After the gaseous disk phase these include scattering from resident planetary embryos, chaos in the giant planets orbits, the giant planet instability, and long-term dynamical evolution. Different global models for Solar System formation imply contrasting dynamical histories of the asteroid belt. Vesta and Ceres may have been implanted from opposite regions of the Solar System -- Ceres from the Jupiter-Saturn region and Vesta from the terrestrial planet region -- and could therefore represent very different formation conditions.
The asteroid belt contains less than a thousandth of Earths mass and is radially segregated, with S-types dominating the inner belt and C-types the outer belt. It is generally assumed that the belt formed with far more mass and was later strongly depleted. Here we show that the present-day asteroid belt is consistent with having formed empty, without any planetesimals between Mars and Jupiters present-day orbits. This is consistent with models in which drifting dust is concentrated into an isolated annulus of terrestrial planetesimals. Gravitational scattering during terrestrial planet formation causes radial spreading, transporting planetesimals from inside 1-1.5 AU out to the belt. Several times the total current mass in S-types is implanted, with a preference for the inner main belt. C-types are implanted from the outside, as the giant planets gas accretion destabilizes nearby planetesimals and injects a fraction into the asteroid belt, preferentially in the outer main belt. These implantation mechanisms are simple byproducts of terrestrial- and giant planet formation. The asteroid belt may thus represent a repository for planetary leftovers that accreted across the Solar System but not in the belt itself.
Resolved observations of millimetre-sized dust, tracing larger planetesimals, have pinpointed the location of 26 Edgeworth-Kuiper belt analogs. We report that a belts distance $R$ to its host star correlates with the stars luminosity $L_{star}$, following $Rpropto L^{0.19}_{star}$ with a low intrinsic scatter of $sim$17%. Remarkably, our Edgeworth-Kuiper belt in the Solar System and the two CO snow lines imaged in protoplanetary disks lie close to this $R$-$L_{star}$ relation, suggestive of an intrinsic relationship between protoplanetary disk structures and belt locations. To test the effect of bias on the relation, we use a Monte Carlo approach and simulate uncorrelated model populations of belts. We find that observational bias could produce the slope and intercept of the $R$-$L_{star}$ relation, but is unable to reproduce its low scatter. We then repeat the simulation taking into account the collisional evolution of belts, following the steady state model that fits the belt population as observed through infrared excesses. This significantly improves the fit by lowering the scatter of the simulated $R$-$L_{star}$ relation; however, this scatter remains only marginally consistent with the one observed. The inability of observational bias and collisional evolution alone to reproduce the tight relationship between belt radius and stellar luminosity could indicate that planetesimal belts form at preferential locations within protoplanetary disks. The similar trend for CO snow line locations would then indicate that the formation of planetesimals and/or planets in the outer regions of planetary systems is linked to the volatility of their building blocks, as postulated by planet formation models.
A determination of the dynamical evolution of the asteroid belt is difficult because the asteroid belt has evolved since the time of asteroid formation through mechanisms that include: (1) catastrophic collisions, (2) rotational disruption, (3) chaotic orbital evolution and (4) orbital evolution driven by Yarkovsky radiation forces. The timescales of these loss mechanisms are uncertain and there is a need for more observational constraints. In the inner main belt, the mean size of the non-family asteroids increases with increasing inclination. Here, we use that observation to show that all inner main belt asteroids originate from either the known families or from ghost families, that is, old families with dispersed orbital elements. We estimate that the average age of the asteroids in the ghost families is a factor of 1/3 less than the Yarkovsky orbital evolution timescale. However, this orbital evolution timescale is a long-term average that must allow for the collisional evolution of the asteroids and for stochastic changes in their spin directions. By applying these constraints on the orbital evolution timescales to the evolution of the size-frequency distribution of the Vesta asteroid family, we estimate that the age of this family is greater than 1.3 $Gyr$ and could be comparable with the age of the solar system. By estimating the number of ghost families, we calculate that the number of asteroids that are the root sources of the meteorites and the near-Earth asteroids that originate from the inner main belt is about 20.
Recent multi-wavelength observations suggest that inner parts of protoplanetary disks (PPDs) have shorter lifetimes for heavier host stars. Since PPDs around high-mass stars are irradiated by strong ultra-violet radiation, photoevaporation may provide an explanation for the observed trend. We perform radiation hydrodynamics simulations of photoevaporation of PPDs for a wide range of host star mass of $M_* =0.5$-$7.0 M_{odot}$. We derive disk mass-loss rate $dot{M}$, which has strong stellar dependence as $dot{M} approx 7.30times10^{-9}(M_{*}/M_{odot})^{2}M_{odot}rm{yr}^{-1}$. The absolute value of $dot{M}$ scales with the adopted far-ultraviolet and X-ray luminosities. We derive the surface mass-loss rates and provide polynomial function fits to them. We also develop a semi-analytic model that well reproduces the derived mass-loss rates. The estimated inner disk lifetime decreases as the host star mass increases, in agreement with the observational trend. We thus argue that photoevaporation is a major physical mechanism for PPD dispersal for a wide range of the stellar mass and can account for the observed stellar mass dependence of the inner disk lifetime.
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