Laboratory Exploration of Heat Transfer Regimes in Rapidly Rotating Turbulent Convection

We report heat transfer and temperature profile measurements in laboratory experiments of rapidly rotating convection in water under intense thermal forcing (Rayleigh number $Ra$ as high as $sim 10^{13}$) and unprecedentedly strong rotational influence (Ekman numbers $E$ as low as $10^{-8}$). Measurements of the mid-height vertical temperature gradient connect quantitatively to predictions from numerical models of asymptotically rapidly rotating convection, separating various flow phenomenologies. Past the limit of validity of the asymptotically-reduced models, we find novel behaviors in a regime we refer to as rotationally-influenced turbulence, where rotation is important but not as dominant as in the known geostrophic turbulence regime. The temperature gradients collapse to a Rayleigh-number scaling as $Ra^{-0.2}$ in this new regime. It is bounded from above by a critical convective Rossby number $Ro^*=0.06$ independent of domain aspect ratio $Gamma$, clearly distinguishing it from well-studied rotation-affected convection.