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M16=NGC 6611, the Eagle Nebula, is a well studied region of star formation and the source of a widely recognized Hubble Space Telescope (HST) image. High spatial resolution infrared observations with the Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) on HST reveal the detailed morphology of two embedded star formation regions that are heavily obscured at optical wavelengths. It is striking that only limited portions of the visually obscured areas are opaque at 2.2 microns. Although the optical images imply substantial columns of material, the infrared images show only isolated clumps of dense gas and dust. Rather than being an active factory of star production, only a few regions are capable of sustaining current star formation. Most of the volume in the columns may be molecular gas and dust, protected by capstones of dense dust. Two active regions of star formation are located at the tips of the optical northern and central large ``elephant trunk features shown in the WFPC2 images. They are embedded in two capstones of infrared opaque material that contains and trails behind the sources. Although the presence of these sources was evident in previous observations at the same and longer wavelengths, the NICMOS images provide a high resolution picture of their morphology. Two bright stars appear at the tip of the southern column and may be the result of recent star formation at the top of that column. These observations suggest that the epoch of star formation in M16 may be near its endpoint.
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We present new Spitzer photometry of the Eagle Nebula (M16, containing the optical cluster NGC 6611) combined with near-infrared photometry from 2MASS. We use dust radiative transfer models, mid-infrared and near-infrared color-color analysis, and mid-infrared spectral indices to analyze point source spectral energy distributions, select candidate young stellar objects (YSOs), and constrain their mass and evolutionary state. Comparison of the different protostellar selection methods shows that mid-infrared methods are consistent, but as has been known for some time, near-infrared-only analysis misses some young objects. We reveal more than 400 protostellar candidates, including one massive young stellar object (YSO) that has not been previously highlighted. The YSO distribution supports a picture of distributed low-level star formation, with no strong evidence of triggered star formation in the ``pillars. We confirm the youth of NGC 6611 by a large fraction of infrared-excess sources, and reveal a younger cluster of YSOs in the nearby molecular cloud. Analysis of the YSO clustering properties shows a possible imprint of the molecular clouds Jeans length. Multiwavelength mid-IR imaging thus allows us to analyze the protostellar population, to measure the dust temperature and column density, and to relate these in a consistent picture of star formation in M16.
M16 (the Eagle Nebula) is a striking star forming region, with a complex morphology of gas and dust sculpted by the massive stars in NGC 6611. Detailed studies of the famous ``elephant trunks dramatically increased our understanding of the massive star feedback into the parent molecular cloud. A rich young stellar population (2 - 3 Myr) has been identified, from massive O-stars down to substellar masses. Deep into the remnant molecular material, embedded protostars, Herbig-Haro objects and maser sources bear evidence of ongoing star formation in the nebula, possibly triggered by the massive cluster members. M 16 is a excellent template for the study of star formation under the hostile environment created by massive O-stars. This review aims at providing an observational overview not only of the young stellar population but also of the gas remnant of the star formation process.
We present IZJHKL photometry of the core of the cluster NGC 6611 in the Eagle Nebula. This photometry is used to constrain the Initial Mass Function (IMF) and the circumstellar disk frequency of the young stellar objects. Optical spectroscopy of 258 objects is used to confirm membership and constrain contamination as well as individual reddening estimates. Our overall aim is to assess the influence of the ionizing radiation from the massive stars on the formation and evolution of young low-mass stars and their disks. The disk frequency determined from the JHKL colour-colour diagram suggests that the ionizing radiation from the massive stars has little effect on disk evolution (Oliveira et al. 2005). The cluster IMF seems indistinguishable from those of quieter environments; however towards lower masses the tell-tale signs of an environmental influence are expected to become more noticeable, a question we are currently addressing with our recently acquired ultra-deep (ACS and NICMOS) HST images.
We have obtained maps of the 1.25mm thermal dust emission and the molecular gas emission over a region of 20 by 10 arcmin around the Trifid Nebula (M20), with the IRAM 30m and the CSO telescopes as well as in the mid-infrared wavelength with ISO and SPITZER. Our survey is sensitive to features down to N(H2) sim 10^{22} cm-2 in column density. The cloud material is distributed in fragmented dense gas filaments (n(H2) sim 1000 cm-3) with sizes ranging from 1 to 10 pc. A massive filament, WF, with properties typical of Infra Red Dark Clouds, connects M20 to the W28 supernova remnant. These filaments pre-exist the formation of the Trifid and were originally self-gravitating. The fragments produced are very massive (100 Msun or more) and are the progenitors of the cometary globules observed at the border of the HII region. We could identify 33 cores, 16 of which are currently forming stars. They are usually gravitationally unbound and have low masses of a few Msun. The densest starless cores (several 10^5 cm-3) may be the site for the next generation of stars. The physical gas and dust properties of the cometary globules have been studied in detail and have been found very similar. They all are forming stars. Several intermediate-mass protostars have been detected in the cometary globules and in the deeply embedded cores. Evidence of clustering has been found in the shocked massive cores TC3-TC4-TC5. M20 is a good example of massive-star forming region in a turbulent, filamentary molecular cloud. Photoionization appears to play a minor role in the formation of the cores. The observed fragmentation is well explained by MHD-driven instabilities and is usually not related to M20. We propose that the nearby supernova remnant W28 could have triggered the formation of protostellar clusters in nearby dense cores of the Trifid.
Theory predicts that cosmological gas accretion plays a fundamental role fuelling star formation in galaxies. However, a detailed description of the accretion process to be used when interpreting observations is still lacking. Using the state-of-the-art cosmological hydrodynamical simulation eagle, we work out the chemical inhomogeneities arising in the disk of galaxies due to the randomness of the accretion process. In low-mass systems and outskirts of massive galaxies, low metallicity regions are associated with enhanced star-formation, a trend that reverses in the centers of massive galaxies. These predictions agree with the relation between surface density of star formation rate and metallicity observed in the local spiral galaxies from the MaNGA survey. Then, we analyse the origin of the gas that produces stars at two key epochs, z simeq 0 and z simeq 2. The main contribution comes from gas already in the galaxy about 1 Gyr before stars are formed, with a share from external gas that is larger at high redshift. The accreted gas may come from major and minor mergers, but also as gravitationally unbound gas and from mergers with dark galaxies (i.e., haloes where more than 95 % of the baryon mass is in gas). We give the relative contribution of these sources of gas as a function of stellar mass (8 < log Mstar < 11). Even at z = 0, some low-mass galaxies form a significant fraction of their total stellar mass during the last Gyr from mergers with dark galaxies.
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