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Register a new userTransient obscuration event captured in NGC 3227. I. Continuum model for the broadband spectral energy distribution
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From Swift monitoring of a sample of active galactic nuclei (AGN) we found a transient X-ray obscuration event in Seyfert-1 galaxy NGC 3227, and thus triggered our joint XMM-Newton, NuSTAR, and Hubble Space Telescope (HST) observations to study this event. Here in the first paper of our series we present the broadband continuum modelling of the spectral energy distribution (SED) for NGC 3227, extending from near infrared (NIR) to hard X-rays. We use our new spectra taken with XMM-Newton, NuSTAR, and HST/COS in 2019, together with archival unobscured XMM-Newton, NuSTAR, and HST/STIS data, in order to disentangle various spectral components of NGC 3227 and recover the underlying continuum. We find the observed NIR-optical-UV continuum is explained well by an accretion disk blackbody component (Tmax = 10 eV), which is internally reddened by E(B-V) = 0.45 with a Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) extinction law. We derive the inner radius (12 Rg) and the accretion rate (0.1 solar mass per year) of the disk by modelling the thermal disk emission. The internal reddening in NGC 3227 is most likely associated with outflows from the dusty AGN torus. In addition, an unreddened continuum component is also evident, which likely arises from scattered radiation, associated with the extended narrow-line region (NLR) of NGC 3227. The extreme ultraviolet (EUV) continuum, and the soft X-ray excess, can be explained with a warm Comptonisation component. The hard X-rays are consistent with a power-law and a neutral reflection component. The intrinsic bolometric luminosity of the AGN in NGC 3227 is about 2.2e+43 erg/s in 2019, corresponding to 3% Eddington luminosity. Our continuum modelling of the new triggered data of NGC 3227 requires the presence of a new obscuring gas with column density NH = 5e+22 cm^-2, partially covering the X-ray source (Cf = 0.6).
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An extensive multi-satellite campaign on NGC 5548 has revealed this archetypal Seyfert-1 galaxy to be in an exceptional state of persistent heavy absorption. Our observations taken in 2013-2014 with XMM-Newton, Swift, NuSTAR, INTEGRAL, Chandra, HST and two ground-based observatories have together enabled us to establish that this unexpected phenomenon is caused by an outflowing stream of weakly ionised gas (called the obscurer), extending from the vicinity of the accretion disk to the broad-line region. In this work we present the details of our campaign and the data obtained by all the observatories. We determine the spectral energy distribution of NGC 5548 from near-infrared to hard X-rays by establishing the contribution of various emission and absorption processes taking place along our line of sight towards the central engine. We thus uncover the intrinsic emission and produce a broadband continuum model for both obscured (average summer 2013 data) and unobscured ($<$ 2011) epochs of NGC 5548. Our results suggest that the intrinsic NIR/optical/UV continuum is a single Comptonised component with its higher energy tail creating the soft X-ray excess. This component is compatible with emission from a warm, optically-thick corona as part of the inner accretion disk. We then investigate the effects of the continuum on the ionisation balance and thermal stability of photoionised gas for unobscured and obscured epochs.
We present our investigation into the long-term variability of the X-ray obscuration and optical-UV-X-ray continuum in the Seyfert 1 galaxy NGC 5548. In 2013 and 2014, the Swift observatory monitored NGC 5548 on average every day or two, with archival observations reaching back to 2005, totalling about 670 ks of observing time. Both broadband spectral modelling and temporal rms variability analysis are applied to the Swift data. We disentangle the variability caused by absorption, due to an obscuring weakly-ionised outflow near the disk, from variability of the intrinsic continuum components (the soft X-ray excess and the power-law) originating from the disk and its associated coronae. The spectral model that we apply to this extensive Swift data is the global model that we derived for NGC 5548 from analysis of the stacked spectra from our multi-satellite campaign of summer 2013 (including XMM-Newton, NuSTAR and HST). The results of our Swift study show that changes in the covering fraction of the obscurer is the primary and dominant cause of variability in the soft X-ray band on timescales of 10 days to ~ 5 months. The obscuring covering fraction of the X-ray source is found to range between 0.7 and nearly 1.0. The contribution of the soft excess component to the X-ray variability is often much less than that of the obscurer, but it becomes comparable when the optical-UV continuum flares up. We find that the soft excess is consistent with being the high-energy tail of the optical-UV continuum and can be explained by warm Comptonisation: up-scattering of the disk seed photons in a warm, optically thick corona as part of the inner disk. To this date, the Swift monitoring of NGC 5548 shows that the obscurer has been continuously present in our line of sight for at least 4 years (since at least February 2012).
We perform a spectral analysis of a sample of 11 medium redshift (1.5 < z < 2.2) quasars. Our sample all have optical spectra from the SDSS, infrared spectra from GNIRS and TSPEC, and X-ray spectra from XMM-Newton. We first analyse the Balmer broad emission line profiles which are shifted into the IR spectra to constrain black hole masses. Then we fit an energy-conserving, three component accretion model of the broadband spectral energy distribution (SED) to our multi-wavelength data. Five out of the 11 quasars show evidence of an SED peak, allowing us to constrain their bolometric luminosity from these models and estimate their mass accretion rates. Based on our limited sample, we suggest that estimating bolometric luminosities from L_5100A and L_2-10keV may be unreliable, as has been also noted for a low-redshift, X-ray selected AGN sample.
It is widely believed that the primary X-ray emission of AGN is due to the Comptonisation of optical-UV photons from a hot electron corona, while the origin of the soft-excess is still uncertain and matter of debate. A second Comptonisation component, called warm corona, was therefore proposed to account for the soft-excess, and found in agreement with the optical-UV to X-ray emission of a sample of Seyfert galaxies. In this context, we exploit the broadband XMM-Newton and NuSTAR simultaneous observations of the Seyfert galaxy NGC 4593 to further test the so called two corona model. The NGC 4593 spectra are well reproduced by the model, from the optical/UV to the hard X-rays. Moreover, the data reveal a significant correlation between the hot and the warm corona parameters during our monitoring campaign.
The type I Seyfert galaxy NGC 3227 was observed by Suzaku six times in 2008, with intervals of $sim1$ week and net exposures of $sim50$ ksec each. Among the six observations, the source varied by nearly an order of magnitude, being brightest in the 1st observation with a 2-10 keV luminosity of $1.2times10^{42}$~erg~s$^{-1}$, while faintest in the 4th with $2.9times10^{41}$~erg~s$^{-1}$. As it became fainter, the continuum in a 2-45 keV band became harder, while a narrow Fe-K$alpha$ emission line, detected on all occasions at 6.4 keV of the source rest frame, remained approximately constant in the photon flux. Through a method of variability-assisted broad-band spectroscopy (e.g., Noda et al. 2013), the 2-45 keV spectrum of NGC 3227 was decomposed into three distinct components. One is a relatively soft power-law continuum with a photon index of $sim 2.3$, weakly absorbed and highly variable on time scales of $sim5$ ksec; it was observed only when the source was above a threshold luminosity of $sim6.6 times10^{41}$ erg s$^{-1}$ (in 2-10 keV), and was responsible for further source brightening beyond. Another is a harder and more absorbed continuum with a photon index of $sim 1.6$, which persisted through the six observations and varied slowly on time scales of a few weeks by a factor of $sim2$. This component, carrying a major fraction of the broad-band emission when the source is below the threshold luminosity, is considered as an additional primary emission. The last one is a reflection component with the narrow iron line, produced at large distances from the central black hole.
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