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Register a new userThe architecture of multi-planet systems as a tracer of their formation mechanisms
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Exoplanets observed by the {it Kepler} telescope exhibit a bi-modal, radius distribution, which is known as the radius gap. We explore an origin of the radius gap, focusing on multi-planet systems. Our simple theoretical argument predicts that type I planetary migration produces different configurations of protoplanets with different masses and such different configurations can result in two distinguishable populations of small-sized multi-planet systems. We then perform an observational analysis to verify this prediction. In the analysis, multiple Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests are applied to the observed systems, using the statistical measures that are devised to systematically characterize the properties of multi-planet systems. We find with 99.5% confidence that the observed, small-sized multi-planet systems are divided into two distinct populations. The distinction likely originates from different spatial distributions of protoplanets, which are determined by type I migration and subsequently trigger giant impact. We also show that these distinct populations are separated around the radius gap when the gas surface density of protoplanetary disks is $sim 10^2$ g cm$^{-2}$ in the vicinity of the host stars. This work therefore emphasizes the importance of planetary migration and the inner disk properties.
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Identification of the main planet formation site is fundamental to understanding how planets form and migrate to the current locations. We consider the heavy-element content trend of observed exoplanets derived from improved measurements of mass and radius, and explore how this trend can be used as a tracer of their formation sites. Using gas accretion recipes obtained from detailed hydrodynamical simulations, we confirm that the disk-limited gas accretion regime is most important for reproducing the heavy-element content trend. Given that such a regime is specified by two characteristic masses of planets, we compute these masses as a function of the distance ($r$) from the central star, and then examine how the regime appears in the mass-semimajor axis diagram. Our results show that a plausible solid accretion region emerges at $r simeq 0.6$ au and expands with increasing $r$, using the conventional disk model. Given that exoplanets that possess the heavy-element content trend distribute currently near their central stars, our results imply the importance of planetary migration that would occur after solid accretion onto planets might be nearly completed at $r geq 0.6$ au. Self-consistent simulations would be needed to verify the predictions herein.
This white paper discusses a repurposed mission for the Kepler spacecraft that focusses on solving outstanding problems in planet formation and evolution by targeting the study of the hot Jupiter population of young stars. This mission can solve the question of the mode of migration of hot Jupiters, address the problem of whether Jupiters form by hot-start (gravitational instability) or cold-start (core accretion) mechanisms, and provide a wealth of data on the early stages of planetary system evolution during the active phases of stars which impact planetary habitability. In one year of observations of three weeks dwell time per field, Kepler would increase by more than an order of magnitude the number of known hot Jupiters, which can be followed up with fast cadence observations to to search for transit timing variations and to perform asteroseismological characterization of the host stars. This mission scenario continues to operate Kepler in the photometric monitoring mode for which it was designed, and is generally flexible with regards to field selection enabling prioritization of fuel usage and attitude control constraints.
Models of planet formation are built on underlying physical processes. In order to make sense of the origin of the planets we must first understand the origin of their building blocks. This review comes in two parts. The first part presents a detailed description of six key mechanisms of planet formation: 1) The structure and evolution of protoplanetary disks 2) The formation of planetesimals 3) Accretion of protoplanets 4) Orbital migration of growing planets 5) Gas accretion and giant planet migration 6) Resonance trapping during planet migration. While this is not a comprehensive list, it includes processes for which our understanding has changed in recent years or for which key uncertainties remain. The second part of this review shows how global models are built out of planet formation processes. We present global models to explain different populations of known planetary systems, including close-in small/low-mass planets (i.e., super-Earths), giant exoplanets, and the Solar Systems planets. We discuss the different sources of water on rocky exoplanets, and use cosmochemical measurements to constrain the origin of Earths water. We point out the successes and failings of different models and how they may be falsified. Finally, we lay out a path for the future trajectory of planet formation studies.
Multi-planet systems produce a wealth of information for exoplanet science, but our understanding of planetary architectures is incomplete. Probing these systems further will provide insight into orbital architectures and formation pathways. Here we present a model to predict previously undetected planets in these systems via population statistics. The model considers both transiting and non-transiting planets, and can test the addition of more than one planet. Our tests show the models orbital period predictions are robust to perturbations in system architectures on the order of a few percent, much larger than current uncertainties. Applying it to the multi-planet systems from TESS provides a prioritized list of targets, based on predicted transit depth and probability, for archival searches and for guiding ground-based follow-up observations hunting for hidden planets.
IR emission bands at 3.3, 6.2, 7.7, 8.6 and 11.3 um are generally attributed to IR fluorescence from (mainly) FUV pumped PAHs. As such, they trace the FUV stellar flux and are a measure of star formation. We examined the IR spectral characteristics of Galactic star forming regions, normal and starburst galaxies, AGNs and ULIRGs. The goal is to analyze if PAH bands are a good qualitative and/or quantitative tracer of star formation and hence the application of PAH bands as a diagnostic in order to identify the dominant processes contributing to the IR emission from Seyferts and ULIRGs. We develop a MIR/FIR diagnostic and compare it to known diagnostics, with these also applied to the Galactic sample. This diagnostic is based on the FIR normalized 6.2 um PAH flux and the FIR normalized 6.2 um continuum flux. The Galactic sources form a sequence spanning a range of 3 orders of magnitude, from embedded compact HII regions to exposed PDRs and the (D)ISM. The variation in the 6.2 um PAH/continuum ratio is relative small. Normal and starburst galaxies ressemble exposed PDRs. While Seyfert-2s coincide with the starburst trend, Seyfert-1s are displaced by at least a factor 10 in 6.2 um continuum flux. ULIRGs show a diverse spectral appearance (AGN hot dust continuum, starburst-like or strong dust obscuration in the nucleus). ULIRGs also seems to have more prominent FIR emission than either starburst galaxies or AGNs. We discuss the observed variation in the Galactic sample in view of the evolutionary state and the PAH/dust abundance and the use of PAHs as quantitative tracers of star formation activity. We find that PAHs may be better suited as a tracer of B stars, which dominate the Galactic stellar energy budget, than as a tracer of massive star formation (O stars).
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