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Register a new userLarge density deficit of Earths core revealed by a multi-megabar primary pressure scale
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Precise information about the composition of the Earths core is critical to understand planetary evolution and for discussing current hot topics in geodynamic behavior, such as core-mantle boundary heat flow. However, samples from deep in the Earths interior are not available, so our knowledge is based on comparison of laboratory measurements with seismological observations, informed by meteorite composition, and indications of the Earths core temperature. One of the most interesting results of such work has been the suggestion that Earths inner core must contain light elements because the density of the core, as determined from seismological measurements, is lower than the density of pure iron, its main constituent, as determined from laboratory measurements and/or theoretical work: the density deficit is now considered to be ~4%. However, this conclusion relies critically on having an accurate pressure scale to relate lab generated pressures to geological pressures. Establishing such a scale has been the subject of intensive research but still involves significant extrapolation and approximations, especially at higher pressures. Further, a pressure scale to the multi-megabar pressures is indispensable for discussing super-Earth planets. Here we establish the first primary pressure scale extending to the multi-megabar pressures of Earths core by measuring acoustic phonon velocities using inelastic scattering from a rhenium sample in a diamond anvil cell. Our new pressure scale agrees with previous primary scales at lower pressures and also shock compression experiments, but is significantly different from previous secondary and theoretical scales at Earths core pressures: previous scales have overestimated, by at least 20%, laboratory pressures at 230 gigapascals. Our new scale suggests the density deficit of the inner core is ~9%, doubling the light-element content of the core.
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In a first approximation the Earths interior has an isotropic structure with a spherical symmetry. Over the last decades the geophysical observations have revealed, at different spatial scales, the existence of several perturbations from this basic structure. Some of them are situated in the neighborhood of the inner core boundary (ICB). One of the best documented perturbations is the asymmetry at the top of the inner core (ATIC) characterized by faster seismic wave velocity in the eastern hemisphere than in the western hemisphere. All existing explanations are based on a hemispheric variation of the material properties near ICB inside the inner core. Using numerical simulations of the seismic ray propagation, we show that the ATIC can be explained as well by the displacement of the inner core towards east in the equatorial plane tens of kilometers from the Earths center, without modifying the spherical symmetry in the upper inner core. The hypothesis of a displaced inner core is also sustained by other observed hemispheric asymmetries at the top of the inner core and at the bottom of the outer core. A displaced inner core would have major implications for many mechanical, thermal, and magnetic phenomena in the Earths interior.
It has long been assumed the Earths solid inner core started to grow when molten iron cooled to its melting point. However, the nucleation mechanism, which is a necessary step of crystallization, has not been well understood. Recent studies found it requires an unrealistic degree of undercooling to nucleate the stable hexagonal close-packed (hcp) phase of iron, which can never be reached under the actual Earths core conditions. This contradiction leads to the inner core nucleation paradox [1]. Here, using a persistent-embryo method and molecular dynamics simulations, we demonstrate that the metastable body-centered cubic (bcc) phase of iron has a much higher nucleation rate than the hcp phase under inner-core conditions. Thus, the bcc nucleation is likely to be the first step of inner core formation instead of direct nucleation of the hcp phase. This mechanism reduces the required undercooling of iron nucleation, which provides a key factor to solve the inner-core nucleation paradox. The two-step nucleation scenario of the inner core also opens a new avenue for understanding the structure and anisotropy of the present inner core.
The crystal structure of iron in the Earths inner core remains debated. Most recent experiments suggest a hexagonal-close-packed (hcp) phase. In simulations, it has been generally agreed that the hcp-Fe is stable at inner core pressures and relatively low temperatures. At high temperatures, however, several studies suggest a body-centered-cubic (bcc) phase at the inner core condition. We have examined the crystal structure of iron at high pressures over 2 million atmospheres (>200GPa) and at high temperatures over 5000 kelvin in a laser-heated diamond cell using microstructure analysis combined with $textit{in-situ}$ x-ray diffraction. Experimental evidence shows a bcc-Fe appearing at core pressures and high temperatures, with an hcp-bcc transition line in pressure-temperature space from about 95$pm$2GPa and 2986$pm$79K to at least 222$pm$6GPa and 4192$pm$104K. The trend of the stability field implies a stable bcc-Fe at the Earths inner core condition, with implications including a strong candidate for explaining the seismic anisotropy of the Earths inner core.
The Earth acts as a gigantic heat engine driven by decay of radiogenic isotopes and slow cooling, which gives rise to plate tectonics, volcanoes, and mountain building. Another key product is the geomagnetic field, generated in the liquid iron core by a dynamo running on heat released by cooling and freezing to grow the solid inner core, and on chemical convection due to light elements expelled from the liquid on freezing. The power supplied to the geodynamo, measured by the heat-flux across the core-mantle boundary (CMB), places constraints on Earths evolution. Estimates of CMB heat-flux depend on properties of iron mixtures under the extreme pressure and temperature conditions in the core, most critically on the thermal and electrical conductivities. These quantities remain poorly known because of inherent difficulties in experimentation and theory. Here we use density functional theory to compute these conductivities in liquid iron mixtures at core conditions from first principles- the first directly computed values that do not rely on estimates based on extrapolations. The mixtures of Fe, O, S, and Si are taken from earlier work and fit the seismologically-determined core density and inner-core boundary density jump. We find both conductivities to be 2-3 times higher than estimates in current use. The changes are so large that core thermal histories and power requirements must be reassessed. New estimates of adiabatic heat-flux give 15-16 TW at the CMB, higher than present estimates of CMB heat-flux based on mantle convection; the top of the core must be thermally stratified and any convection in the upper core driven by chemical convection against the adverse thermal buoyancy or lateral variations in CMB heat flow. Power for the geodynamo is greatly restricted and future models of mantle evolution must incorporate a high CMB heat-flux and explain recent formation of the inner core.
We present a detailed review of large-scale structure (LSS) study using the discrete wavelet transform (DWT). After describing how one constructs a wavelet decomposition we show how this bases can be used as a complete statistical discription of LSS. Among the topics studied are the the DWT estimation of the probability distribution function; the reconstruction of the power spectrum; the regularization of complex geometry in observational samples; cluster identification; extraction and identification of coherent structures; scale-decomposition of non-Gaussianity, such as spectra of skewnes and kurtosis and scale-scale correlations. These methods are applied to both observational and simulated samples of the QSO Lyman-alpha forests. It is clearly demonstrated that the statistical measures developed using the DWT are needed to distinguish between competing models of structure formation. The DWT also reveals physical features in these distributions not detected before. We conclude with a look towards the future of the use of the DWT in LSS.
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