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Register a new userWater maser variability in a high-mass YSO outburst -- VERA and ALMA observations of S255 NIRS 3
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We carried out observations of the 22 GHz H2O masers in a high-mass protostar S255 NIRS 3 by using VERA. We measured the proper motions of the 22 GHz H2O masers associated with a bipolar outflow. The expansion velocity of the blueshifted bow shock traced by the 22 GHz H2O masers was 28 km s-1 corresponding to a dynamical timescale of 60 years. The direction of the maser outflow is slightly tilted compared with the radio jet, which could suggest a more recent ejection episode during the accretion burst event. The total flux density of the 22 GHz H2O masers has gradually increased from early 2017 and has become almost constant in 2018. For the first time, we reveal extended H2O maser emission at 22 GHz in a star forming region, which is partly resolved out by VERA and even by the most extended VLA configurations. We find that the flux variation of such an extended component is similar to that of the unresolved maser emission. We also conducted observations of the submillimeter continuum and the 321 GHz H2O masers with ALMA at Band 7. The continuum emission does not show significant variations compared with the previous observations performed 5 months before. We mapped the 321 GHz H2O masers in S255 NIRS 3 providing the fourth example, for this maser, of the spatial distribution in a high-mass star-forming region. The lower ratio of the 22 GHz/321 GHz maser luminosity in the blueshifted bow shock suggests a temperature (>1000 K), higher than for the other maser features in this region. We conclude that the bow shock structure traced by the 22 GHz H2O maser features is unlikely to be originating at the interface between the radio jet powered by the recent accretion outburst and the surrounding medium. The brightening of the 22 GHz H2O masers could be due to radiative excitation by photons form the infrared outburst escaping along the cavity created by the newly ejected material.
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Using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA), we investigated a peculiar millimeter source MMS 3 located in the Orion Molecular Cloud 3 (OMC-3) region in the 1.3 mm continuum, CO ($J$=2-1), SiO ($J$=5-4), C$^{18}$O ($J$=2-1), N$_2$D$^+$ ($J$=3-2), and DCN ($J$=3-2) emissions. With the ALMA high angular resolution ($sim$0.2), we detected a very compact and highly centrally condensed continuum emission with a size of 0.45 $times$ 0.32 (P.A.=0.22$^circ$). The peak position coincides with the locations of previously reported $Spitzer$/IRAC and X-ray sources within their positional uncertainties. We also detected an envelope with a diameter of $sim$6800 au (P.A.=75$^circ$) in the C$^{18}$O ($J$=2-1) emission. Moreover, a bipolar outflow was detected in the CO ($J$=2-1) emission for the first time. The outflow elongates roughly perpendicular to the long axis of the envelope detected in the C$^{18}$O ($J$=2-1) emission. Compact high-velocity CO gas in the (red-shifted) velocity range of 22-30 km s$^{-1}$, presumably tracing a jet, was detected near the 1.3 mm continuum peak. A compact and faint red-shifted SiO emission was marginally detected on the CO outflow lobe. The physical quantities of the outflow in MMS 3 are relatively smaller than those in other sources in the OMC-3 region. The centrally condensed object associated with the near-infrared and X-ray sources, the flattened envelope, and the faint outflow indicate that MMS 3 harbors a low mass protostar with an age of $sim$10$^3$ yr.
We present 1.05 mm ALMA observations of the deeply embedded high-mass protocluster G11.92-0.61, designed to search for low-mass cores within the accretion reservoir of the massive protostars. Our ALMA mosaic, which covers an extent of ~0.7 pc at sub-arcsecond (~1400 au) resolution, reveals a rich population of 16 new millimetre continuum sources surrounding the three previously-known millimetre cores. Most of the new sources are located in the outer reaches of the accretion reservoir: the median projected separation from the central, massive (proto)star MM1 is ~0.17 pc. The derived physical properties of the new millimetre continuum sources are consistent with those of low-mass prestellar and protostellar cores in nearby star-forming regions: the median mass, radius, and density of the new sources are 1.3 Msun, 1600 au, and n(H2)~10^7 cm^-3. At least three of the low-mass cores in G11.92-0.61 drive molecular outflows, traced by high-velocity 12CO(3-2) (observed with the SMA) and/or by H2CO and CH3OH emission (observed with ALMA). This finding, combined with the known outflow/accretion activity of MM1, indicates that high- and low-mass stars are forming (accreting) simultaneously within this protocluster. Our ALMA results are consistent with the predictions of competitive-accretion-type models in which high-mass stars form along with their surrounding clusters.
(Abridged) The initial physical conditions of high-mass stars and protoclusters remain poorly characterized. To this end we present the first targeted ALMA 1.3mm continuum and spectral line survey towards high-mass starless clump candidates, selecting a sample of 12 of the most massive candidates ($400-4000, M_odot$) within 5 kpc. The joint 12+7m array maps have a high spatial resolution of $sim 3000, mathrm{au}$ ($sim 0.8^{primeprime}$) and have point source mass-completeness down to $sim 0.3, M_odot$ at $6sigma$ (or $1sigma$ column density sensitivity of $1.1times10^{22}, mathrm{cm^{-2}}$). We discover previously undetected signposts of low-luminosity star formation from CO (2-1) and SiO (5-4) bipolar outflows and other signatures towards 11 out of 12 clumps, showing that current MIR/FIR Galactic Plane surveys are incomplete to low- and intermediate-mass protostars ($lesssim 50, L_odot$). We compare a subset of the observed cores with a suite of radiative transfer models of starless cores. We find a high-mass starless core candidate with a model-derived mass consistent with $29^{52}_{15}, M_odot$ when integrated over size scales of $2times10^4, mathrm{au}$. Unresolved cores are poorly fit by starless core models, supporting the interpretation that they are protostellar even without detection of outflows. Substantial fragmentation is observed towards 10 out of 12 clumps. We extract sources from the maps using a dendrogram to study the characteristic fragmentation length scale. Nearest neighbor separations when corrected for projection are consistent with being equal to the clump average thermal Jeans length. Our findings support a hierarchical fragmentation process, where the highest density regions are not strongly supported against thermal gravitational fragmentation by turbulence or magnetic fields.
We investigate the kinematics of high mass protostellar objects within the high mass star forming region IRAS 19410+2336. We performed high angular resolution observations of 6.7-GHz methanol and 22 GHz water masers using the MERLIN (Multi-Element Radio Linked Interferometer Network) and e-MERLIN interferometers. The 6.7-GHz methanol maser emission line was detected within the $sim$ 16--27 km s$^{-1}$ velocity range with a peak flux density $sim$50 Jy. The maser spots are spread over $sim$1.3 arcsec on the sky, corresponding to $sim$2800 au at a distance of 2.16 kpc. These are the first astrometric measurements at 6.7 GHz in IRAS 19410+2336. The 22-GHz water maser line was imaged in 2005 and 2019 (the latter with good astrometry). Its velocities range from 13 to $sim$29 km s$^{-1}$. The peak flux density was found to be 18.7 Jy and 13.487 Jy in 2005, and 2019, respectively. The distribution of the water maser components is up to 165 mas, $sim$350 au at 2.16 kpc. We find that the Eastern methanol masers most probably trace outflows from the region of millimetre source mm1. The water masers to the West lie in a disc (flared or interacting with outflow/infall) around another more evolved millimetre source (13-s). The maser distribution suggests that the disc lies at an angle of 60$^{circ}$ or more to the plane of the sky and the observed line of sight velocities then suggest an enclosed mass between 44 M$_{odot}$ and as little as 11 M$_{odot}$ if the disc is edge-on. The Western methanol masers may be infalling.
VLBI multi-epoch water maser observations are a powerful tool to study the dense, warm shocked gas very close to massive protostars. The very high-angular resolution of these observations allow us to measure the proper motions of the masers in a few weeks, and together with the radial velocity, to determine their full kinematics. In this paper we present a summary of the main observational results obtained toward the massive star-forming regions of Cepheus A and W75N, among them: (i) the identification of different centers of high-mass star formation activity at scales of 100 AU; (ii) the discovery of new phenomena associated with the early stages of high-mass protostellar evolution (e.g., isotropic gas ejections); and (iii) the identification of the simultaneous presence of a wide-angle outflow and a highly collimated jet in the massive object Cep A HW2, similar to what is observed in some low-mass protostars. Some of the implications of these results in the study of high-mass star formation are discussed.
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