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We summarize some of the compelling new scientific opportunities for understanding stars and stellar systems that can be enabled by sub-milliarcsec (sub-mas) angular resolution, UV-Optical spectral imaging observations, which can reveal the details of the many dynamic processes (e.g., evolving magnetic fields, accretion, convection, shocks, pulsations, winds, and jets) that affect stellar formation, structure, and evolution. These observations can only be provided by long-baseline interferometers or sparse aperture telescopes in space, since the aperture diameters required are in excess of 500 m (a regime in which monolithic or segmented designs are not and will not be feasible) and since they require observations at wavelengths (UV) not accessible from the ground. Such observational capabilities would enable tremendous gains in our understanding of the individual stars and stellar systems that are the building blocks of our Universe and which serve as the hosts for life throughout the Cosmos.
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The weak, turbulent magnetic fields that supposedly permeate most of the solar photosphere are difficult to observe, because the Zeeman effect is virtually blind to them. The Hanle effect, acting on the scattering polarization in suitable lines, can in principle be used as a diagnostic for these fields. However, the prediction that the majority of the weak, turbulent field resides in intergranular lanes also poses significant challenges to scattering polarization observations because high spatial resolution is usually difficult to attain. We aim to measure the difference in scattering polarization between granules and intergranules. We present the respective center-to-limb variations, which may serve as input for future models. We perform full Stokes filter polarimetry at different solar limb positions with the CN band filter of the Hinode-SOT Broadband Filter Imager, which represents the first scattering polarization observations with sufficient spatial resolution to discern the granulation. Hinode-SOT offers unprecedented spatial resolution in combination with high polarimetric sensitivity. The CN band is known to have a significant scattering polarization signal, and is sensitive to the Hanle effect. We extend the instrumental polarization calibration routine to the observing wavelength, and correct for various systematic effects. The scattering polarization for granules (i.e., regions brighter than the median intensity of non-magnetic pixels) is significantly larger than for intergranules. We derive that the intergranules (i.e., the remaining non-magnetic pixels) exhibit (9.8 pm 3.0)% less scattering polarization for 0.2<u<0.3, although systematic effects cannot be completely excluded. These observations constrain MHD models in combination with (polarized) radiative transfer in terms of CN band line formation, radiation anisotropy, and magnetic fields.
Sunspot observations in chromospheric spectral lines have revealed the existence of short-lived linear bright transients, commonly referred to as penumbral micro-jets (PMJs). Details on the origin and physical nature of PMJs are to large extend still unkown. We aim to characterize the dynamical nature of PMJs to provide guidance for future modelling efforts. We analyze high spatial (0.1 arcsec) and temporal resolution (1 s) Ca II H filtergram (0.1 nm bandwidth) observations of a sunspot obtained on two consecutive days with the Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope. We find that PMJs appear to be the rapid brightening of an already existing (faint) fibril. The rapid brightening is the fast increase (typically less than 10 s) in intensity over significant length (several 100s of km) of the existing fibril. For most PMJs, we cannot identify a clear root or source from where the brightening appears to originate. After the fast onset, about half of the PMJs have a top that is moving with an apparent velocity between 5 and 14 km/s, most of them upwards. For the other PMJs, there is no significant motion of the top. For about a third of the PMJs we observe a splitting into two parallel and co-evolving linear features during the later phases of the lifetime of the PMJ. We conclude that mass flows can play only limited role in the onset phase of PMJs and that it is more likely that we see the effect of a fast heating front.
We present a spatially resolved, high-spectral resolution (R=12000) K-band temporal monitoring of Rigel using AMBER at the VLTI. Rigel was observed in the Bracket Gamma line and its nearby continuum in 2006-2007, and 2009-2010. These unprecedented observations were complemented by contemporaneous optical high-resolution spectroscopy. We analyse the near-IR spectra and visibilities with the 1D non-LTE radiative-transfer code CMFGEN. The differential and closure phase signal exhibit asymmetries that are interpreted as perturbations of the wind. A systematic visibility decrease is observed across the Bracket Gamma. During the 2006-2007 period the Bracket Gamma and likely the continuum forming regions were larger than in the 2009-2010 epoch. Using CMFGEN, we infer a mass-loss rate change of about 20% between the two epochs. We further find time variations in the differential visibilities and phases. The 2006-2007 period is characterized by noticeable variations of the differential visibilities in Doppler position and width and by weak variations in differential and closure phase. The 2009-2010 period is much more quiet with virtually no detectable variations in the dispersed visibilities but a strong S-shape signal is observed in differential phase coinciding with a strong ejection event discernible in the optical spectra. The differential phase signal that is sometimes detected is reminiscent of the signal computed from hydrodynamical models of corotating interaction regions. For some epochs the temporal evolution of the signal suggests the rotation of the circumstellar structures.
The recent high angular resolution observations have shown that the transition between a globally symmetrical giant and a source surrounded by a spatially complex environment occurs relatively early, as soon as the external layers of the stars are not tightly bound to the core of the star anymore. In this review, the emphasis will be put on the delineating the differences between the torus and disk classification through the presentation of many examples of near-IR and mid-IR high angular resolution observations. These examples cover the disks discovered in the core of some bipolar nebulae, post-AGB disks, the dusty environment around born-again stars and recent novae, and also the disks encountered around more massive evolved sources. We discuss the broad range of circumstances and time scales for which bipolar nebulae with disks are observed.
Multiplicity is one of the most fundamental observable properties of massive O-type stars and offers a promising way to discriminate between massive star formation theories. Nevertheless, companions at separations between 1 and 100 mas remain mostly unknown due to intrinsic observational limitations. [...] The Southern MAssive Stars at High angular resolution survey (SMASH+) was designed to fill this gap by providing the first systematic interferometric survey of Galactic massive stars. We observed 117 O-type stars with VLTI/PIONIER and 162 O-type stars with NACO/SAM, respectively probing the separation ranges 1-45 and 30-250mas and brightness contrasts of Delta H < 4 and Delta H < 5. Taking advantage of NACOs field-of-view, we further uniformly searched for visual companions in an 8-radius down to Delta H = 8. This paper describes the observations and data analysis, reports the discovery of almost 200 new companions in the separation range from 1mas to 8 and presents the catalog of detections, including the first resolved measurements of over a dozen known long-period spectroscopic binaries. Excluding known runaway stars for which no companions are detected, 96 objects in our main sample (DEC < 0 deg; H<7.5) were observed both with PIONIER and NACO/SAM. The fraction of these stars with at least one resolved companion within 200mas is 0.53. Accounting for known but unresolved spectroscopic or eclipsing companions, the multiplicity fraction at separation < 8 increases to f_m = 0.91 +/- 0.03. The fraction of luminosity class V stars that have a bound companion reaches 100% at 30mas while their average number of physically connected companions within 8 is f_c = 2.2 +/- 0.3. This demonstrates that massive stars form nearly exclusively in multiple systems. Additionally, the nine non-thermal (NT) radio emitters observed by SMASH+ are all resolved [...]
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