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Register a new userThe VLT/NaCo large program to probe the occurrence of exoplanets and brown dwarfs at wide orbits. III. The frequency of brown dwarfs and giant planets as companions to solar-type stars
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In recent years there have been many attempts to characterize the occurrence of stellar, BD and planetary-mass companions to solar-type stars, with the aim of constraining formation mechanisms. From RV observations a dearth of companions with masses between 10-40 MJup has been noticed at close separations, suggesting the possibility of a distinct formation mechanism for objects above and below this range. We present a model for the substellar companion mass function (CMF). It consists of the superposition of the planet and BD companion mass distributions, assuming that we can extrapolate the RV measured companion mass function for planets to larger separations and the stellar companion mass-ratio distribution over all separations into the BD mass regime. By using both the results of the VLT/NaCo large program and the complementary archive datasets that probe the occurrence of planets and BDs on wide orbits around solar-type stars, we place some constraints on the planet and BD distributions. We developed a MC simulation tool to predict the outcome of a given survey, depending on the shape of the orbital parameter distributions. Comparing the predictions with the results of the observations, we calculate how likely different models are and which can be ruled out. Current observations are consistent with the proposed model for the CMF, as long as a sufficiently small outer truncation radius is introduced for the planet separation distribution. The results of the direct imaging surveys searching for substellar companions around Sun-like stars are consistent with a combined substellar mass spectrum of planets and BDs. This mass distribution has a minimum between 10 and 50 MJup, in agreement with RV measurements. The dearth of objects in this mass range would naturally arise from the shape of the mass distribution, without the introduction of any distinct formation mechanism for BDs.
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Understanding the formation and evolution of giant planets ($ge$1 $M_{Jup}$) at wide orbital separation ($ge$5 AU) is one of the goals of direct imaging. Over the past 15 years, many surveys have placed strong constraints on the occurrence rate of wide-orbit giants, mostly based on non-detections, but very few have tried to make a direct link with planet formation theories. In the present work, we combine the results of our previously published VLT/NaCo large program with the results of 12 past imaging surveys to constitute a statistical sample of 199 FGK stars within 100 pc, including 3 stars with sub-stellar companions. Using Monte Carlo simulations and assuming linear flat distributions for the mass and semi-major axis of planets, we estimate the sub-stellar companion frequency to be within 0.75-5.7% at the 68% confidence level (CL) within 20-300 AU and 0.5-75 $M_{Jup}$, which is compatible with previously published results. We also compare our results with the predictions of state-of-the-art population synthesis models based on the gravitational instability (GI) formation scenario by Forgan & Rice (2013), with and without scattering. We estimate that in both the scattered and non-scattered populations, we would be able to detect more than 30% of companions in the 1-75 $M_{Jup}$ range (95% CL). With the 3 sub-stellar detections in our sample, we estimate the fraction of stars that host a planetary system formed by GI to be within 1.0-8.6% (95% CL). We also conclude that even though GI is not common, it predicts a mass distribution of wide-orbit massive companions that is much closer to what is observed than what the core accretion scenario predicts. Finally, we associate the present paper with the release of the Direct Imaging Virtual Archive (DIVA, http://cesam.lam.fr/diva/), a public database that aims at gathering the results of past, present, and future direct imaging surveys.
Young, nearby stars are ideal targets to search for planets using the direct imaging technique. The determination of stellar parameters is crucial for the interpretation of imaging survey results particularly since the luminosity of substellar objects has a strong dependence on system age. We have conducted a large program with NaCo at the VLT in order to search for planets and brown dwarfs in wide orbits around 86 stars. A large fraction of the targets observed with NaCo were poorly investigated in the literature. We performed a study to characterize the fundamental properties (age, distance, mass) of the stars in our sample. To improve target age determinations, we compiled and analyzed a complete set of age diagnostics. We measured spectroscopic parameters and age diagnostics using dedicated observations acquired with FEROS and CORALIE spectrographs at La Silla Observatory. We also made extensive use of archival spectroscopic data and results available in the literature. Additionally, we exploited photometric time-series, available in ASAS and Super-WASP archives, to derive rotation period for a large fraction of our program stars. We provided updated characterization of all the targets observed in the VLT NaCo Large program, a survey designed to probe the occurrence of exoplanets and brown dwarfs in wide orbits. The median distance and age of our program stars are 64 pc and 100 Myr, respectively. Nearly all the stars have masses between 0.70 and 1.50sun, with a median value of 1.01 Msun. The typical metallicity is close to solar, with a dispersion that is smaller than that of samples usually observed in radial velocity surveys. Several stars are confirmed or proposed here to be members of nearby young moving groups. Eight spectroscopic binaries are identified.
Context: We studied numerically the formation of giant planet (GP) and brown dwarf (BD) embryos in gravitationally unstable protostellar disks and compared our findings with directly-imaged, wide-orbit (>= 50 AU) companions known to-date. The viability of the disk fragmentation scenario for the formation of wide-orbit companions in protostellar disks around (sub-)solar mass stars was investigated. Methods: We used numerical hydrodynamics simulations of disk formation and evolution with an accurate treatment of disk thermodynamics. The use of the thin-disk limit allowed us to probe the long-term evolution of protostellar disks. We focused on models that produced wide-orbit GP/BD embryos, which opened a gap in the disk and showed radial migration timescales similar to or longer than the typical disk lifetime. Results: While disk fragmentation was seen in the majority of our models, only 6 models out of 60 revealed the formation of quasi-stable, wide-orbit GP/BD embryos. Disk fragmentation produced GP/BD embryos with masses in the 3.5-43 M_J range, covering the whole mass spectrum of directly-imaged, wide-orbit companions to (sub-)solar mass stars. On the other hand, our modelling failed to produce embryos on orbital distances <= 170 AU, whereas several directly-imaged companions were found at smaller orbits down to a few AU. Disk fragmentation also failed to produce wide-orbit companions around stars with mass <= 0.7 Msun, in disagreement with observations. Conclusions: Disk fragmentation is unlikely to explain the whole observed spectrum of wide-orbit companions to (sub-)solar-mass stars and other formation mechanisms, e.g., dynamical scattering of closely-packed companions onto wide orbits, should be invoked to account for companions at orbital distance from a few tens to approx 150 AU and wide-orbit companions with masses of the host star <= 0.7 Msun. (abridged)
Gas clumps formed within massive gravitationally unstable circumstellar discs are potential seeds of gas giant planets, brown dwarfs and companion stars. Simulations show that competition between three processes -- migration, gas accretion and tidal disruption -- establishes what grows from a given seed. Here we investigate the robustness of numerical modelling of clump migration and accretion with the codes PHANTOM, GADGET, SPHINX, SEREN, GIZMO-MFM, SPHNG and FARGO. The test problem comprises a clump embedded in a massive disc at an initial separation of 120 AU. There is a general qualitative agreement between the codes, but the quantitative agreement in the planet migration rate ranges from $sim 10$% to $sim 50$%, depending on the numerical setup. We find that the artificial viscosity treatment and the sink particle prescription may account for much of the differences between the codes. In order to understand the wider implications of our work, we also attempt to reproduce the planet evolution tracks from our hydrodynamical simulations with prescriptions from three previous population synthesis studies. We find that the disagreement amongst the population synthesis models is far greater than that between our hydrodynamical simulations. The results of our code comparison project are therefore encouraging in that uncertainties in the given problem are probably dominated by the physics not yet included in the codes rather than by how hydrodynamics is modelled in them.
There is no universally acknowledged criterion to distinguish brown dwarfs from planets. Numerous studies have used or suggested a definition based on an objects mass, taking the ~13-Jupiter mass (M_J) limit for the ignition of deuterium. Here, we investigate various deuterium-burning masses for a range of models. We find that, while 13 M_J is generally a reasonable rule of thumb, the deuterium fusion mass depends on the helium abundance, the initial deuterium abundance, the metallicity of the model, and on what fraction of an objects initial deuterium abundance must combust in order for the object to qualify as having burned deuterium. Even though, for most proto-brown dwarf conditions, 50% of the initial deuterium will burn if the objects mass is ~(13.0 +/- 0.8)M_J, the full range of possibilities is significantly broader. For models ranging from zero-metallicity to more than three times solar metallicity, the deuterium burning mass ranges from ~11.0 M_J (for 3-times solar metallicity, 10% of initial deuterium burned) to ~16.3 M_J (for zero metallicity, 90% of initial deuterium burned).
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