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Register a new userHerschel celestial calibration sources: Four large main-belt asteroids as prime flux calibrators for the far-IR/sub-mm range
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Celestial standards play a major role in observational astrophysics. They are needed to characterise the performance of instruments and are paramount for photometric calibration. During the Herschel Calibration Asteroid Preparatory Programme approximately 50 asteroids have been established as far-IR/sub-mm/mm calibrators for Herschel. The selected asteroids fill the flux gap between the sub-mm/mm calibrators Mars, Uranus and Neptune, and the mid-IR bright calibration stars. All three Herschel instruments observed asteroids for various calibration purposes, including pointing tests, absolute flux calibration, relative spectral response function, observing mode validation, and cross-calibration aspects. Here we present newly established models for the four large and well characterized main-belt asteroids (1) Ceres, (2) Pallas, (4) Vesta, and (21) Lutetia which can be considered as new prime flux calibrators. The relevant object-specific properties (size, shape, spin-properties, albedo, thermal properties) are well established. The seasonal (distance to Sun, distance to observer, phase angle, aspect angle) and daily variations (rotation) are included in a new thermophysical model setup for these targets. The thermophysical model predictions agree within 5% with the available (and independently calibrated) Herschel measurements. The four objects cover the flux regime from just below 1,000 Jy (Ceres at mid-IR N-/Q-band) down to fluxes below 0.1 Jy (Lutetia at the longest wavelengths). Based on the comparison with PACS, SPIRE and HIFI measurements and pre-Herschel experience, the validity of these new prime calibrators ranges from mid-infrared to about 700 micron, connecting nicely the absolute stellar reference system in the mid-IR with the planet-based calibration at sub-mm/mm wavelengths.
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Digital tracking enables telescopes to detect asteroids several times fainter than conventional techniques. We describe our optimized methodology to acquire, process, and interpret digital tracking observations, and we apply it to probe the apparent magnitude distribution of main belt asteroids fainter than any previously detected from the ground. All-night integrations with the Dark Energy Camera (DECam) yield 95% completeness at $R$ magnitude 25.0, and useful sensitivity to $R=25.6$ mag when we use an analytical detection model to correct flux overestimation bias. In a single DECam field observed over two nights, we detect a total of 3234 distinct asteroids, of which 3123 are confirmed on both nights. At opposition from the Sun, we find a sky density of $697 pm 15$ asteroids per square degree brighter than $R = 25.0$ mag, and $1031 pm 23$ brighter than $R = 25.6$ mag. We agree with published results for the sky density and apparent magnitude distribution of asteroids brighter than $R=23$ mag. For a power law defined by $dN/dR propto 10^{alpha R}$, we find marginally acceptable fits with a constant slope $alpha = 0.28 pm 0.02$ from $R=20$ to 25.6 mag. Better fits are obtained for a broken power law with $alpha=0.218 pm 0.026$ for $R=20$ to 23.5 mag, steepening to $alpha=0.340 pm 0.025$ for $R = 23.5$ to 25.6 mag. The constant or steepening power law indicates asteroids fainter than $R = 23.5$ mag are abundant, contrary to some previous claims but consistent with theory.
We present the K2 light curves of a large sample of untargeted Main Belt asteroids (MBAs) detected with the Kepler space telescope. The asteroids were observed within the Uranus superstamp, a relatively large, continuous field with low stellar background designed to cover the planet Uranus and its moons during Campaign 8 of the K2 mission. The superstamp offered the possibility to obtain precise, uninterrupted light curves of a large number of MBAs and thus to determine unambiguous rotation rates for them. We obtained photometry for 608 MBAs, and were able to determine or estimate rotation rates for 90 targets, of which 86 had no known values before. In an additional 16 targets we detected incomplete cycles and/or eclipse-like events. We found the median rotation rate to be significantly longer than that of the ground-based observations indicating that the latter are biased towards shorter rotation rates. Our study highlights the need and benefits of further continuous photometry of asteroids.
We present new photometric observations for twelve asteroids ((122) Gerda, (152) Atala, (260) Huberta, (665) Sabine, (692) Hippodamia, (723) Hammonia, (745) Mauritia, (768) Struveana, (863) Benkoela, (1113) Katja, (1175) Margo, (2057) Rosemary) from the outer part of the main belt aimed to obtain the magnitude-phase curves and to verify geometric albedo and taxonomic class based on their magnitude-phase behaviors. The measured magnitude-phase relations confirm previously determined composition types of (260) Huberta (C-type), (692) Hippodamia (S-type) and (1175) Margo (S-type). Asteroids (665) Sabine and (768) Struveana previously classified as X-type show phase-curve behavior typical for moderate-albedo asteroids and may belong to the M-type. The phase-curve of (723) Hammonia is typical for the S-type which contradicts the previously determined C-type. We confirmed the moderate-albedo of asteroids (122) Gerda and (152) Atala, but their phase-curves are different from typical for the S-type and may indicate more rare compositional types. Based on magnitude-phase behaviors and V-R colors, (2057) Rosemary most probably belongs to M-type, while asteroids (745) Mauritia and (1113) Katja belong to S-complex. The phase curve of the A-type asteroid (863) Benkoela does not cover the opposition effect range and further observations are needed to understand typical features of the phase-curves of A-type asteroids in comparison with other types. We have also determined lightcurve amplitudes of the observed asteroids and obtained new or improved values of the rotation periods for most of them.
We present a method for calculating precise distances to asteroids using only two nights of data from a single location --- far too little for an orbit --- by exploiting the angular reflex motion of the asteroids due to Earths axial rotation. We refer to this as the rotational reflex velocity method. While the concept is simple and well-known, it has not been previously exploited for surveys of main-belt asteroids. We offer a mathematical development, estimates of the errors of the approximation, and a demonstration using a sample of 197 asteroids observed for two nights with a small, 0.9-meter telescope. This demonstration used digital tracking to enhance detection sensitivity for faint asteroids, but our distance determination works with any detection method. Forty-eight asteroids in our sample had known orbits prior to our observations, and for these we demonstrate a mean fractional error of only 1.6% between the distances we calculate and those given in ephemerides from the Minor Planet Center. In contrast to our two-night results, distance determination by fitting approximate orbits requires observations spanning 7--10 nights. Once an asteroids distance is known, its absolute magnitude and size (given a statistically-estimated albedo) may immediately be calculated. Our method will therefore greatly enhance the efficiency with which 4-meter and larger telescopes can probe the size distribution of small (e.g. 100 meter) main belt asteroids. This distribution remains poorly known, yet encodes information about the collisional evolution of the asteroid belt --- and hence the history of the Solar System.
Unlike NASAs original Kepler Discovery Mission, the renewed K2 Mission will stare at the plane of the Ecliptic, observing each field for approximately 75 days. This will bring new opportunities and challenges, in particular the presence of a large number of main-belt asteroids that will contaminate the photometry. The large pixel size makes K2 data susceptible to the effect of apparent minor planet encounters. Here we investigate the effects of asteroid encounters on photometric precision using a sub-sample of the K2 Engineering data taken in February, 2014. We show examples of asteroid contamination to facilitate their recognition and distinguish these events from other error sources. We conclude that main-belt asteroids will have considerable effects on K2 photometry of a large number of photometric targets during the Mission, that will have to be taken into account. These results will be readily applicable for future space photometric missions applying large-format CCDs, such as TESS and PLATO.
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