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This review examines intermittent target search strategies, which combine phases of slow motion, allowing the searcher to detect the target, and phases of fast motion during which targets cannot be detected. We first show that intermittent search strategies are actually widely observed at various scales. At the macroscopic scale, this is for example the case of animals looking for food ; at the microscopic scale, intermittent transport patterns are involved in reaction pathway of DNA binding proteins as well as in intracellular transport. Second, we introduce generic stochastic models, which show that intermittent strategies are efficient strategies, which enable to minimize the search time. This suggests that the intrinsic efficiency of intermittent search strategies could justify their frequent observation in nature. Last, beyond these modeling aspects, we propose that intermittent strategies could be used also in a broader context to design and accelerate search processes.
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What is the fastest way of finding a randomly hidden target? This question of general relevance is of vital importance for foraging animals. Experimental observations reveal that the search behaviour of foragers is generally intermittent: active search phases randomly alternate with phases of fast ballistic motion. In this letter, we study the efficiency of this type of two states search strategies, by calculating analytically the mean first passage time at the target. We model the perception mecanism involved in the active search phase by a diffusive process. In this framework, we show that the search strategy is optimal when the average duration of motion phases varies like the power either 3/5 or 2/3 of the average duration of search phases, depending on the regime. This scaling accounts for experimental data over a wide range of species, which suggests that the kinetics of search trajectories is a determining factor optimized by foragers and that the perception activity is adequately described by a diffusion process.
Levy flights are known to be optimal search strategies in the particular case of revisitable targets. In the relevant situation of non revisitable targets, we propose an alternative model of bidimensional search processes, which explicitly relies on the widely observed intermittent behavior of foraging animals. We show analytically that intermittent strategies can minimize the search time, and therefore do constitute real optimal strategies. We study two representative modes of target detection, and determine which features of the search time are robust and do not depend on the specific characteristics of detection mechanisms. In particular, both modes lead to a global minimum of the search time as a function of the typical times spent in each state, for the same optimal duration of the ballistic phase. This last quantity could be a universal feature of bidimensional intermittent search strategies.
Search problems at various scales involve a searcher, be it a molecule before reaction or a foraging animal, which performs an intermittent motion. Here we analyze a generic model based on such type of intermittent motion, in which the searcher alternates phases of slow motion allowing detection, and phases of fast motion without detection. We present full and systematic results for different modeling hypotheses of the detection mechanism in space dimension 1, 2 and 3. Our study completes and extends the results of our recent letter [Loverdo {it et al.} Nature Physics {bf 4}, 134 (2008)] and gives the necessary calculation details. In addition, a new modeling of the detection phase is presented. We show that the mean target detection time can be minimized as a function of the mean duration of each phase in dimension 1, 2 and 3. Importantly, this optimal strategy does not depend on the details of the modeling of the slow detection phase, which shows the robustness of our results. We believe that this systematic analysis can be used as a basis to study quantitatively various real search problems involving intermittent behaviors.
We study the kinetics for the search of an immobile target by randomly moving searchers that detect it only upon encounter. The searchers perform intermittent random walks on a one-dimensional lattice. Each searcher can step on a nearest neighbor site with probability alpha, or go off lattice with probability 1 - alpha to move in a random direction until it lands back on the lattice at a fixed distance L away from the departure point. Considering alpha and L as optimization parameters, we seek to enhance the chances of successful detection by minimizing the probability P_N that the target remains undetected up to the maximal search time N. We show that even in this simple model a number of very efficient search strategies can lead to a decrease of P_N by orders of magnitude upon appropriate choices of alpha and L. We demonstrate that, in general, such optimal intermittent strategies are much more efficient than Brownian searches and are as efficient as search algorithms based on random walks with heavy-tailed Cauchy jump-length distributions. In addition, such intermittent strategies appear to be more advantageous than Levy-based ones in that they lead to more thorough exploration of visited regions in space and thus lend themselves to parallelization of the search processes.
We present a simple paradigm for detection of an immobile target by a space-time coupled random walker with a finite lifetime. The motion of the walker is characterized by linear displacements at a fixed speed and exponentially distributed duration, interrupted by random changes in the direction of motion and resumption of motion in the new direction with the same speed. We call these walkers mortal creepers. A mortal creeper may die at any time during its motion according to an exponential decay law characterized by a finite mean death rate $omega_m$. While still alive, the creeper has a finite mean frequency $omega$ of change of the direction of motion. In particular, we consider the efficiency of the target search process, characterized by the probability that the creeper will eventually detect the target. Analytic results confirmed by numerical results show that there is an $omega_m$-dependent optimal frequency $omega=omega_{opt}$ that maximizes the probability of eventual target detection. We work primarily in one-dimensional ($d=1$) domains and examine the role of initial conditions and of finite domain sizes. Numerical results in $d=2$ domains confirm the existence of an optimal frequency of change of direction, thereby suggesting that the observed effects are robust to changes in dimensionality. In the $d=1$ case, explicit expressions for the probability of target detection in the long time limit are given. In the case of an infinite domain, we compute the detection probability for arbitrary times and study its early- and late-time behavior. We further consider the survival probability of the target in the presence of many independent creepers beginning their motion at the same location and at the same time. We also consider a version of the standard target problem in which many creepers start at random locations at the same time.
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