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تسجيل مستخدم جديدSmoke in the Pipe Nebula: dust emission and grain growth in the starless core FeSt 1-457
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(abridged) Methods: We derive maps of submillimeter dust optical depth and effective dust temperature from Herschel data that were calibrated against Planck. After calibration, we then fit a modified blackbody to the long-wavelength Herschel data, using the Planck-derived dust opacity spectral index beta, derived on scales of 30 (or ~1 pc). We use this model to make predictions of the submillimeter flux density at 850 micron, and we compare these in turn with APEX-Laboca observations. Results: A comparison of the submillimeter dust optical depth and near-infrared extinction data reveals evidence for an increased submillimeter dust opacity at high column densities, interpreted as an indication of grain growth in the inner parts of the core. Additionally, a comparison of the Herschel dust model and the Laboca data reveals that the frequency dependence of the submillimeter opacity, described by the spectral index beta, does not change. A single beta that is only slightly different from the Planck-derived value is sufficient to describe the data, beta=1.53+/-0.07. We apply a similar analysis to Barnard 68, a core with significantly lower column densities than FeSt 1-457, and we do not find evidence for grain growth but also a single beta. Conclusions: While we find evidence for grain growth from the dust opacity in FeSt 1-457, we find no evidence for significant variations in the dust opacity spectral index beta on scales 0.02<x<1 pc (or 36<x<30). The correction to the Planck-derived dust beta that we find in both cases is on the order of the measurement error, not including any systematic errors, and it would thus be reasonable to directly apply the dust beta from the Planck all-sky dust model. As a corollary, reliable effective temperature maps can be derived which would be otherwise affected by beta variations.
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High resolution molecular line observations of CS, HCO+, C18O and N2H+ were obtained toward the starless globule FeSt 1-457 in order to investigate its kinematics and chemistry. The HCO+ and CS spectra show clear self-reversed and asymmetric profiles
across the face of the globule. The sense of the observed asymmetry is indicative of the global presence of expansion motions in the outer layers of the globule. These motions appear to be subsonic and significantly below the escape velocity of the globule. Comparison of our observations with near-infrared extinction data indicate that the globule is gravitationally bound. Taken together these considerations lead us to suggest that the observed expansion has its origin in an oscillatory motion of the outer layers of the globule which itself is likely in a quasi-stable state near hydrostatic equilibrium. Analysis of the observed linewidths of CO and N2H+ confirm that thermal pressure is the dominant component of the clouds internal support. A simple calculation suggests that the dominant mode of pulsation would be an l = 2 mode with a period of 0.3 Myr. Deformation of the globule due to the large amplitude l = 2 oscillation may be responsible for the double-peaked structure of the core detected in high resolution extinction maps. Detailed comparison of the molecular-line observations and extinction data provides evidence for significant depletion of C18O and perhaps HCO+ while N2H+ may be undepleted to a cloud depth of about 40 magnitudes of visual extinction.
High resolution molecular line observations of CS, HCO+, C18O and N2H+ were obtained toward the starless globule FeSt 1-457 in order to investigate its kinematics and chemistry. The HCO+ and CS spectra show clear self-reversed and asymmetric profiles
across the face of the globule. The sense of the observed asymmetry is indicative of the global presence of expansion motions in the outer layers of the globule. These motions appear to be subsonic and significantly below the escape velocity of the globule. Comparison of our observations with near-infrared extinction data indicate that the globule is gravitationally bound. Taken together these considerations lead us to suggest that the observed expansion has its origin in an oscillatory motion of the outer layers of the globule which itself is likely in a quasi-stable state near hydrostatic equilibrium. Analysis of the observed linewidths of CO and N2H+ confirm that thermal pressure is the dominant component of the clouds internal support. A simple calculation suggests that the dominant mode of pulsation would be an l = 2 mode with a period of 0.3 Myr. Deformation of the globule due to the large amplitude l = 2 oscillation may be responsible for the double-peaked structure of the core detected in high resolution extinction maps. Detailed comparison of the molecular-line observations and extinction data provides evidence for significant depletion of C18O and perhaps HCO+ while N2H+ may be undepleted to a cloud depth of about 40 magnitudes of visual extinction.
The relationship between dust polarization and extinction was determined for the cold dense starless molecular cloud core FeSt 1-457 based on the background star polarimetry of dichroic extinction at near-infrared wavelengths. Owing to the known (thr
ee-dimensional) magnetic field structure, the observed polarizations from the core were corrected by considering (a) the subtraction of the ambient polarization component, (b) the depolarization effect of inclined distorted magnetic fields, and (c) the magnetic inclination angle of the core. After these corrections, a linear relationship between polarization and extinction was obtained for the core in the range up to $A_V approx 20$ mag. The initial polarization vs. extinction diagram changed dramatically after the corrections of (a) to (c), with the correlation coefficient being refined from 0.71 to 0.79. These corrections should affect the theoretical interpretation of the observational data. The slope of the finally obtained polarization--extinction relationship is $P_H / E_{H-K_s} = 11.00 pm 0.72$ $%$ ${rm mag}^{-1}$, which is close to the statistically estimated upper limit of the interstellar polarization efficiency (Jones 1989). This consistency suggests that the upper limit of interstellar polarization efficiency might be determined by the observational viewing angle toward polarized astronomical objects.
The relationship between submillimeter (submm) dust emission polarization and near-infrared (NIR) $H$-band polarization produced by dust dichroic extinction was studied for the cold starless dense core FeSt 1-457. The distribution of polarization ang
les ($90^{circ}$-rotated for submm) and degrees were found to be very different between at submm and NIR wavelengths. The mean polarization angles for FeSt 1-457 at submm and NIR wavelengths are $132.1^{circ} pm 22.0^{circ}$ and $2.7^{circ} pm 16.2^{circ}$, respectively. The correlation between $P_H$ and $A_V$ was found to be linear from outermost regions to relatively dense line of sight of $A_V approx 25$ mag, indicating that NIR polarization reflects overall polarization (magnetic field) structure of the core at least in this density range. The flat $P_H/A_V$ versus $A_V$ correlations were confirmed, and the polarization efficiency was found to be comparable to the observational upper limit (Jones 1989). On the other hand, as reported by Alves et al., submm polarization degrees show clear linearly decreasing trend against $A_V$ from $A_V approx 20$ mag to the densest center ($A_V approx 41$ mag), appearing as polarization hole structure. The power law index for the $P_{rm submm}$ versus $A_V$ relationship was obtained to be $approx -1$, indicating that the alignment for the submm sensitive dust is lost. These very different polarization distributions at submm and NIR wavelengths suggest that (1) there is different radiation environment at these wavelengths or (2) submm-sensitive dust is localized or the combination of them.
Three dimensional (3D) magnetic field information on molecular clouds and cores is important for revealing their kinematical stability (magnetic support) against gravity which is fundamental for studying the initial conditions of star formation. In t
he present study, the 3D magnetic field structure of the dense starless core FeSt 1-457 is determined based on the near-infrared polarimetric observations of the dichroic polarization of background stars and simple 3D modeling. With an obtained angle of line-of-sight magnetic inclination axis $theta_{rm inc}$ of $45^{circ}pm10^{circ}$ and previously determined plane-of-sky magnetic field strength $B_{rm pol}$ of $23.8pm12.1$ $mu{rm G}$, the total magnetic field strength for FeSt 1-457 is derived to be $33.7pm18.0$ $mu{rm G}$. The critical mass of FeSt 1-457, evaluated using both magnetic and thermal/turbulent support is ${M}_{rm cr} = 3.70pm0.92$ ${rm M}_{odot}$, which is identical to the observed core mass, $M_{rm core}=3.55pm0.75$ ${rm M}_{odot}$. We thus conclude that the stability of FeSt 1-457 is in a condition close to the critical state. Without infalling gas motion and no associated young stars, the core is regarded to be in the earliest stage of star formation, i.e., the stage just before the onset of dynamical collapse following the attainment of a supercritical condition. These properties would make FeSt 1-457 one of the best starless cores for future studies of the initial conditions of star formation.
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